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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



LESSORS 



ON 



THE HUMAN BODY. 



&tx Elraientarg treatise 



UPON PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, AXD THE EFFECTS 

OF STIMULANTS AXD XAECOTICS OX 

THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 



BY 



ORESTES M. BRANDS, 

Principal of Grammar and Primary School Xo. 4, 
Pater sox, X.J. 



^ F «&*£% 




LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN, 

BOSTON AXD NEW YORK. 



Copyright, 1883, 
By ORESTES M. BRANDS. 



JTranfelfn \Brzss : 

RAND, AVERY, AND COMPANY, 
BOSTON. 



PREFACE. 



The formidable size and ponderous character of 
many books placed in the hands of children have 
been prolific sources of discouragement of effort, 
and, not infrequently, causes for dislike and neglect 
of important and interesting studies. 

These simple Lessons on the Human Body are 
specially designed to present subject-matter in such 
quantity and of such quality as shall make it possi- 
ble and probable that the young student may " make 
its acquaintance." 

It is confidently believed that the arrangement 
of the material will at once commend itself to the 
teacher. Attention is respectfully directed to the 
following features ; viz., — 

1. Short, complete lessons. 

2. The systematic division of each lesson that de- 

scribes an organ into three distinct topics, — 
Position, Construction, Work, 

3. The arrangement of the entire text in short, num- 

bered paragraphs, each stating an important 
fact briefly. 



iv Preface. 

4. The adaptation of the text to oral instruction, the 
teacher's work being already arranged. 

While in manuscript form, these lessons were 
used, with much success, in large schools. 

Thanks are due to LeRoy F. Lewis, Principal 
of School No. 11, Brooklyn, who unites with his 
high qualifications as a teacher special scientific 
and professional knowledge, for valuable sugges- 
tions ; and to Dr. Albert Day of the Washingtonian 
Home, Boston, an eminent writer and authority on 
alcoholic diseases, who has read the manuscript on 
alcohol, and gives it his unqualified approval. 

The author believes it to be unnecessary to waste 
time and space in presenting the importance of an 
early acquaintance with the structure and functions 
of the principal organs of the human body, and of 
a general knowledge of the laws governing their 
well-being. No intelligent person of to-day questions 
the importance of such knowledge. If this little 
book should merit the approbation of my fellow- 
teachers, I shall feel fully repaid for the labor 
attending its preparation. 

0. M. B. 

Dec. 22, 1883. 



CO^TE^TS, 



PART I. 



THE SKELETON. 

Lesson page 

1. — The Bones in General ...... 3 

Dehnition. — Xumber. — Uses. — Form. 

2. — The Bones in General {Continued) 6 

Composition. — Use of Materials. — Structure* 

3. — The Bones in G-eneral {Concluded) 7 

Growth of the Bones. — Repair of the Bones. — Remarks. 

4. — Joints 8 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

5. — Joints {Concluded) 9 

Kinds. — Construction of Each. — Remarks. 

6. — Classes of Bones.— Bones or the Head 10 

Location. — Construction. — Work. 

7. — Bones of the Trunk 12 

Location. — Structure. — Remarks. 

8. — The Thorax, or Chest 13 

Position. — Construction. — "Work. 

9. — The Backbone, or Spine 14 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

10. — The PaES 17 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

11. — The Pelvis 18 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

12. — Bones of the Upper Extremities 19 

Classes. — Xumber of Each Class. 

V 



VI 



Contents. 



Lesson . PAGE 

13. — The Scapula 19 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

14. — The Clavtcle, or Collar-Bone 20 

Location. — Construction. — "Work. — Remarks. 

15. — The Shoulder-Joint 21 

Location. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

16. — The Arms 22 

Construction. 

17. — The Elbow 23 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

18. — The Wrist 24 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

19. — The Hand 26 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks : Perfection 
of the Hand; Capabilities. 

20. — Bones of the Lower Extremities 28 

Classes. — Number of Each Class. 

21. — The Hip and Knee . 28 

Structure. — Work. — Remarks. 

22. — The Ankle and Foot 31 

Structure. — Work. — Remarks: Distortion of the Foot. 

23. — Recapitulation of the Classes of Bones 33 

Number of Each, and Sub-Classes. 

24. — Exercise, Dress, and Deformity 35 

Questions 41 



PART II. 

DIGESTION. 

Lesson 

1. — Food 

Why we need Food. — What Food does. 

2. —Food (Concluded) 

Why Food must be digested. — The Digestive Machinery. — 
Remarks* 



PAGE 

53 



55 



Contents. vii 

Lesson page 

3. — The Mouth , t 56 

Work. — Remarks. 

4. — The Salivary Glands 57 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

5. — The Pharynx 58 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

6. — The (Esophagus . . 58 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks* 

7. — The Stomach 60 

Position. — Construction. — * Remarks. 

8. — The Stomach ( Concluded) 61 

Work. — Remarks : Time required for Digestion ; Dr. Beau- 
mont's Experiments on St. Martin. 

9. — The Intestinal Canal. — The Pylorus 64 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

10. — The Duodenum 65 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

11. — The Lacteals 67 

Position. — Construction, — Work. 

12. — The Thoracic Lacteal Duct ,..,,,. 68 

Position. — Construction, — Work, — Remarks, 

13. — Hints about Eating 69 

The Mind at Ease. — The Body rested. — Meals at Regular 
Hours. — Eating hurriedly. — Quiet after Eating. — Brain- 
Work. 

Questions 73 



PART 111. 

THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 

Lesson page 

1. — Blood and its Composition 81 

What and Where. — Composition. — Note : Corpuscles and 
their Size ; Criminal Trials. 

2. — Uses of the Blood 82 

Materials, — Movement. — Remarks ; Transfusion. 



viii Contents. 



Lesson page 

3. — The Heart t 83 

Position. — Construction. 

4. — The Heart ( Concluded) 86 

Work. — Remarks : Beating of the Heart. 

5. — The Arteries 89 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks : Pulse, etc. 

6. — The Capillaries 90 

Position. — Construction. — Work. 

7. — The Veins . 91 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks : Velocity of 
the Blood. 

8. — Recapitulation. — Movements or the Blood 92 

9. — What Hastens the Circulation 93 

Beats of the Heart. — Stimulants. — Mental Labor. — Exer- 
cise. — Fever. — Things to be avoided. 

10. — What Retards the Circulation 94 

Sleep. — Abstinence from Excitement, etc. — Tight Clothing. 
— Location of Blood-Vessels. — Things to be avoided. 

ions . 97 



PART IV. 



THE BREATHING APPARATUS. 

Lesson page 

1. — The Organs of Breathing. — The Larynx 103 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

2. — The Trachea, or Windpipe 106 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

3. — The Lungs 108 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Remarks. 

4. — How we Breathe 110 

Respiration denned. — Inspiration described. — Expiration 
described. — Frequency of Respiration. 



Contents. ix 

Lesson fage 

5. — The Air we Breathe 112 

Pure Air needed. — The Air of Close Rooms. — Air from 
Drain-Pipes. — Malaria. — Foul Air and Disease. 

Questions ' 117 



PART V. 



THE MUSCLES. 

lesson page 

1. — What Muscles are 123 

Position. — Construction. 

2. — Work of the Muscles 126 

Contraction. — Antagonists. — Pairs of Muscles. 

3. — Classes or Muscles 128 

Voluntary. — Involuntary. — Flexors. — Extensors. 

4. — Source or Motion. — Exercise 132 

Why Muscles contract. — Exercise of Muscle. — Exercise 
aids the Circulation. — Exercise aids Appetite and Diges- 
tion. — Hints about Exercise. 

Questions 137 



PART VI. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 

Lesson page 

1. — The Brain 143 

Position. — Construction. — Work. — Peculiarities. 

2. — The Nerves 146 

Location. — Construction. 

3. — The Nervous System 149 

Work. 



x Contents, 

Lesson page 

4. — Exercise of the Brain and Xerves 151 

Exercise Beneficial. — Harmful Exercise. — Equal Develop- 
ment. 

Questions 155 



PART VII. 

EYE, EAR, AND SKIN. 
Lesson page 

1. — THE EYE 161 

Position. — Construction. — Parts described. 

2. — Work of the Eye, or how We See 165 

3. — Care of the Eye. — Abuse. —Disease 166 

4. — THE EAR 169 

Location and Parts. — Construction. 

5. — Work of the Ear. — Care of the Ear 170 

How we hear. — Care of the Ear. — Disease. 

6. — THE SKIN 173 

Location. — Structure. — Work. 

7. — Care of the Skin. — Diseases 175 

Cosmetics. — Bathing. — Skin - Worms. — Ringworm. — 
Freckles. Note : Coloring-Matter. 

Questions 179 



PART VEIL 

ALCOHOL AND THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 

Lesson page 

1. — Alcohol. — What It Is 185 

How Alcohol was discovered. — Derivation of the Word 
"Alcohol." — What Alcohol is. — How Alcohol is 
formed. — What Fermentation is. 



Contents. 



XI 



Lesson • page 

2. — Alcoholic Liquors. — Uses and Nature of Alcohol . . 188 

Kinds and Quantity of Alcohol. — Some Uses of Alcohol. — 
Stimulant and Narcotic. 

3. — Stimulants, Ancient and Modern 189 

Leaves and Roots. — Advancement in Manufacturing Stimu- 
lants. 

4. — Alcohol and Digestion ^191 

Alcohol and Appetite for Food. — Alcohol delays Digestion. 
— Alcohol inflames the Stomach. 

5. — Alcohol and the Circulation. — The Heart, etc. . . 193 

Alcohol hastens the Circulation. — How Alcohol injures the 
Heart. — Alcohol relaxes the Small Arteries. 

6. — Alcohol and the Blood . . . 195 

How Alcohol enters the Blood. — How Alcohol affects the 
Blood. — Alcohol interferes with the Burning of "Waste- 
Matter. — Effects of a Weakened Condition of the Blood. 

7. — Alcohol and the Brain 198 

Alcohol affects the Substance of the Brain. — Alcohol accu- 
mulates in the Brain. — Derangement of the Brain. 

8. — Alcohol, the Nerves and Muscles 201 

How Alcohol affects the Nerve-Pulp. — Alcohol and Muscu- 
lar Movement. 

9. — How Alcohol Affects the Temperature of the Body . 203 

How Warmth of the Body is kept up. — Alcohol reduces the 
Heat of the Body. — Alcohol and Exposure to Severe Cold. 

10. — Intoxication by Alcohol 205 

The Stage of Excitement. — The Stage of Mental Weakness. — 
The Stage of Muscular Weakness. — The Stage of Stupor. 

11. — Delirium-Tremens 207 

Character of the Disease. — Immediate Causes. — Condition 
of the Victim of Delirium-Tremens. — G-eneral Results of 
Delirium-Tremens. 

12. — Effects of Alcohol on People of Different Tempera- 

ments 209 

The Nervous Temperament. — The Sanguine Temperament. 
— The Lymphatic Tenrperament. 

13. — Alcohol and Moral Character 211 

The Moral Feelings blunted. — Dishonesty of Speech. — Dis- 
honesty in regard to Property of Others. — Crime in 
G-eneral. — Appetite for Alcohol may be inherited. — 
Conclusion. 



xii Contents. 

Lesson * page 

14. — The Story Briefly Told . . , . , 213 

Questions e • 217 



PART IX. 



TOBACCO. 

Lesson page 

1. — History op Tobacco 229 

When first known by Europeans. — When introduced into 
Europe. — Origin of the Name. 

2. — Nature and Effects of Tobacco 230 

Nature of Tobacco. — Tobacco as a Medicine. — General 
Effects of the Ordinary Use of Tobacco. 

ions 233 



APPENDIX. 

PAGE 

What to Do till the Doctor Arrives 239 

Poisoning in General. — Poisoning by Carbonic Acid. — Res- 
toration from Drowning. — Bleeding from Arteries. 

Questions 241 

Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms Used .... 243 



PART I. 

THE SKELETON. 



" Knowest thou the nature of the human frame, 
That world of wonders more than we can name? 
Say, has thy busy, curious eye surveyed 
The proofs of wisdom here displayed? " 



THE SKELETON. 



Lesson I. 

THE BONES IN GENERAL. 



(a) Definition. — 1. The skeleton is the frame- 
work of the body. 

(b) Number of the Bones. — 1. The skeleton is 
composed of about 208 bones. The number varies 
at different periods of life. What is merely gristle 
in infancy becomes bone later in life. 

(c) Uses of the Bones. — 1. Some bones protect 
the delicate organs enclosed by them. 

2. Many of the bones give shape to and preserve 
the form of the body. 

3. A large number of the bones serve as levers, 
on which the muscles may act to produce motion. 

(d) Form of the Bones. — 1. Some bones are long, 
as in the legs, for convenience in walking ; and hol- 
low, to give lightness. 

2. Where much strength in small space is needed, 
the bones are short and thick. 

3. Bones that cover cavities are broad and flat, as 
in the chest and skull. 




A Front View of the Male 
Skeleton. 

Head and Neck. 

a, the frontal bone. 

b, the parietal bone. 

c, the temporal bone. 

d, a portion of the sphenoid bone. 

e, the nasal bone. 

/, the malar, or cheek-bones. 
g, the superior maxillary, or upper jaw. 
h, the lower jaw. 
i, the bones of the neck. 

Trunk. 

a, the twelve bones of the back. 

b, the live bones of the loins. 

c, d, the breast-bone. 

e, /, the seven true ribs. 
g, g, the five false ribs. 
hi the rump-bone, or sacrum. 
i, The hip-bones. 

Upper Extremity. 

a, the collar-bone. 

b, the shoulder-blade. 

c, the upper-arm bone. 

d, the radius. 

e, the ulna. 

/, the carpus, or wrist. 
g, the bones of the hand. 
h, first row of finger-bones. 
i t second row of finger-bones. 
k, third row of finger-bones. 
/, the bones of the thumb. 

Lower Extremity. 

a, the thigh-bone. 

b, the knee-pan. 

c, the tibia, or large bone of the leg. 

d, the fibula, or small bone of the leg. 

e, the heel-bone. 

/, the bones of the instep. 
g, the bones of the foot. 
h, the first row of toe-bones. 
if the second row of toe-bones. 
k, the third row of toe-bones. 



A Back View of the Male 
Skeleton. 

The Head. 

a, the parietal bone. 

b, the occipital bone. 

c, the temporal bone. 

d, the cheek-bone. 

e, the lower jaw-bone. 

2Teck and Trunk. 

a, the bones of the neck. 

b, the bones of the back. 

c, the bones of the loins. 

d, the hip-bone. 

e, the sacrum. 

Upper Extremity. 

a> the collar-bone. 

b, the blade-bone. 

c, the upper bone of the arm. 

d, the radius. 

e, the ulna. 

/, the bones of the wrist. 

g, the bones of the hand. 

h, the first row of finger-bones. 

i t the second row of finger-bones. 

k, the third row of finger-bones. 

I, the bones of the thumb. 

Lower Extremity. 

a, the thigh-bone. 

b, the large bone of the leg. 

c, the small bone of the leg. 

d, the heel-bone. 

e, the bones of the instep. 
/, the bones of the toes. 




Fig. 2. 



6 Lessons on the Human Body. 

4. A large number of bones are irregular in shape, 
to suit particular purposes. 

5. The general form of the bones is such as gives 
firmness and strength without great weight. 

Remarks. — If the bones of the limbs were solid, they 
would be much heavier, and therefore not so well adapted 
to rapid movement. Their hollow form gives them greater 
strength than the same amount of bone would have in a solid 
form. 



Lesson -II. 

THE BONES IN GENERAL. — Continued. 

(a) Composition. — 1. The bones are composed 
of animal matter, or jelly, and of mineral matter, — 
lime, etc. 

(1)) Use of the 31aterials. — 1. The mineral mat- 
ter gives hardness and stiffness to the bones. 

2. The animal matter gives toughness and elas- 
ticity. 

(c) Structure of the Bones. — 1. The bones are 
hard externally, but are somewhat softer, and hollow, 
within. 

2. The hollow portions are filled with a spongy 
substance composed of marrow and blood-vessels. 

3. In infancy the bones are only cartilage ; but 
this gradually hardens by additions of mineral matter, 
and in a few years becomes firm bone. In early life 



The Skeleton. 7 

the bones are so tough as not to be easily broken ; 
but in old age the greater amount of earthy matter 
in them causes brittleness, 'and when broken they do 
not heal so quickly as in youth. 



Lesson III. 

THE BONES IN GENERAL. — Concluded. 

(a) Growth of the Bones. — 1. Bone once formed 
does not remain during life, but is constantly disap- 
pearing and being renewed in all its parts, gradu- 
ally, but continually. 

2. The growth of a bone, as a general rule, takes 
place only by addition to its free ends and surfaces. 

3. The blood circulates freely through the bones, 
and supplies them with materials required for their 
growth and nourishment. 

(b) Repair of Broken Bone. — l. Nature has a 
process of her own in repairing broken bones. As 
soon as she can check the flow of blood from the 
broken ends, she sends out a watery fluid which 
contains material of which gristle is formed. In a 
few days the gristle becomes tough, and holds the 
bones in place till mineral can be added to complete 
the union of the broken part. A length of time is 
required to complete the firm repair, and great care 
is required in the use of the bone in the mean time. 



8 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Remarks. — In none of the organs of the body is the con- 
stant change of particles which compose them so easily noticed 
as in the bones. If we mix madder with the food of an animal, 
the bones soon become red, and they regain their original color 
when the coloring-matter no longer forms part of the food. 
Again : if the madder be given for a time, and then omitted, 
and after a while given again, the bones show a white streak 
between two red ones ; which proves that they grow from the 
surface toward the centre. 

Nature gives additional strength to the broken bone by form- 
ing a ring, or ridge of bone, at the place where it has been 
broken. 



Lesson IV, 

JOINTS. 

(a) Position. — 1. Bones are connected at their 
ends or at their sides. 

2. The point at which the bones are connected is 
a joint. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The ends of the bones 
forming a joint are covered with a thick and some- 
what elastic cartilage, or gristle. 

2. The cartilage is again covered with a thin sub- 
stance, the synovial membrane, which gives out a fluid 
like the white of an egg. This oils the joints, so that 
the bones may move freely. 

3. The bones forming the joints are held together 
by strong cords or bands of gristle called ligaments 
(from ligo, to bind). 



The Skeleton. 9 

(c) Worte of the Joints. — 1. The joints permit 
the bones to move, and change position ; so that the 
limbs and other portions of the body may bend, and 
thus perform the various offices that may be required 
of them. 



Lesson V. 

JOINTS. — Concluded. 

(a) Kinds.- -1. There are two kinds of movable 
joints; viz., the hinge-joint and the ball-and-socket 
joint. 

(b) Construction. — !. The hinge-joint is so con- 
structed as to permit motion in only one direction, 
as that of the elbow. 

2. The ball-and-socket joint is so formed as to 
allow motion in every direction, — forward and back- 
ward, and in a circular manner. It is composed of a 
ball on the end of one bone, and a cup or socket in 
another, into which the ball fits. The shoulder-joint 
is of this kind. 

Remarks. — The animal body is the only machine that 
makes the oil which lubricates its own joints. The synovial 
fluid is the oil of the joints. 

The joints, though in such frequent use from infancy to 
old age, seldom wear out. The tough covering of the ends of 
the bones is as' thick and smooth at the end of life as at the 
beginning. 



10 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Lesson VI. 

CLASSES OF BONES. — BONES OF THE HEAD. 

The bones of the skeleton are divided into four 
classes ; viz., — 

1. Bones of the Head. 

2. Bones of the Trunk. 

3. Bones of the Upper Extremities. 

4. Bones of the Lower Extremities. 

Bones of the Head. 

(a) Location. — 1. There are thirty bones in the 
head, and they are located as follows : — 

. 2. Skull, 8 bones. 
Face, 14 bones. 
Ears, 8 bones. 
Besides these, there are thirty-two teeth. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The bones of the skull 
form a hollow, or cavity, in which the brain is situ- 
ated. 

2. The bones of the skull are united by a sort of 
notched joint, similar to what carpenters name " dove- 
tailed " joint. These joints are called sutures. 

3. The form of the skull is oval, and is adapted 
to resist pressure. 

4. The front of the skull is narrower and stronger 
than the back, and is thus prepared to protect the 
brain at a point where danger is greatest. 



The Skeleton. 



11 



5. The elastic packing between the bones, at the 
joints, prevents much of the jar from blows. 

6. All the bones of the head, excepting the lower 
jaw, are immovable. 



Explanations of Fig. 3. 

a, a, the coronal suture. 

b, the sagittal suture. 

c, the lambdoidal suture. 

d, d, ossa triquetra, small ragged 
bones, occasionally found in some 
skulls, lying in the last-mentioned 
suture. 

e, e, portions of the temporal bone, 
overlapping the walls. 




Fig. 3. 



(c) Work. — 1. The bones of the skull and face, 
protect the organs of sense — smell, taste, hearing, 
and sight — from injury. 

2. The bones of the ear aid in hearing. * 

3. The bones of the lower jaw are provided with 
hinge-joints, so as to permit the opening and closing 
of the mouth, the movements required in masticating 
food, etc. 

4. The teeth are used in cutting and grinding the 
food. 



12 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson VII. 

BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

(a) Location. — 1. The trunk is that portion of 
the body situated between the upper and the lower 
extremities. It contains fifty-four bones, located as 
follows ; viz. (see Figs. 1 and *&), — 

The Spine, 24 bones. 
The Ribs, 24 bones. 
The Pelvis, 4 bones. 
The Sternum, 1 bone. 
Root of Tongue, 1 bone. 

(b) Structure. — 1. The trunk contains two cavi- 
ties enclosed by the ribs, sternum, spine, and bones 
of the pelvis. 

2. The upper cavity, the chest, contains the heart, 
lungs, etc. 

3. The lower cavity, the abdomen, contains the 
stomach, liver, kidneys, and the intestines. 

4. The two cavities are separated by a muscular 
partition called the diaphragm, and are enclosed by 
the ribs and muscular walls of the abdomen. 

Remarks. — The diaphragm is a great partition situated 
between the chest and the abdomen, having its convex or 
rounded surface toward the chest, and its concave or hollowed 
side toward the abdomen. Its work is explained in the lessons 
on the Breathing Apparatus. 



The Skeleton. 



13 



Lesson VIII. 

THE THORAX, OR CHEST. 

(a) Position. — 1. Tlie thorax, or chest, is the 
upper and smaller of the two great cavities of the 
trunk. 



Explanation of Fig. 4. 

This figure represents the sternum, or breast- 
bone, d 

A, the place where the collar-bone is joined. 

C, where the first rib is joined. 

c, d, e, f, g, the number of pieces which are 
united into one. 

h, the tip of the sternum. 




Fig. 4. 



(b) Construction. — 1. The natural form of the 
chest is that of a cone diminishing upward, its apex 
being between the shoulders. (See Fig. 1.) 



16 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. Its peculiar construction allows a great variety 
of bodily movement, — bending and straightening 
the trunk, movements from side to side, and also a 
rotary movement, enabling us to twist the trunk 
nearly one-fourth of a turn, — thus permitting the 
great number of movements required for convenience 
in labor, pleasure, etc. 

3. The spine is a wonderful piece of mechanism. 
In it we have a column of twenty-four bones, united 
so ingeniously and firmly as to sustain a heavy load, 
and yet so elastic that it will bend like rubber, keep- 
ing the body proudly and sturdily erect when we 
will, or permitting it to bend in humble obedience to 
our inclinations. 

Remarks. — The pads of cartilage between the bones of 
the spine vary from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in thick- 
ness. They become compressed by the weight they bear during 
the day ; so that a man is not quite as tall in the evening as in 
the morning ; but, as the pads are elastic, they recover their 
thickness during the night, or when pressure upon them is re- 
moved. A man is somewhat shorter in old age than at earlier 
periods of his life, because long-continued pressure of the 
weight of the head and upper parts of the body, together with 
the burdens of labor, overcome the elasticity of the pads, and 
they remain thin or compressed. The backbone thus becomes 
glightly shortened. 



The Skeleton. 17 

Lesson X. 

THE RIBS. 

(a) Position. — 1. The ribs are slender, curved 
bones, arranged in pairs, twelve on each side of the 
chest. (See Figs. 1 and &) 

(b) Construction. — 1. The ribs are attached by 
their heads to the spine ; and by means of cartilage 
their other extremities are attached to the sternum, 
or breast-bone. 

2. The seven uppermost are called true ribs, be- 
cause each of them is connected directly with the 
sternum. 

3. The five lower ribs are called false ribs, because 
one or two of them are loose at one end, and the 
others run together, instead of being separately ex- 
tended to and connected with the breast-bone. 

(c) WorJc. — l. The use of the ribs is to form the 
cavity of the chest for the reception and protection 
of the lungs, heart, and great blood-vessels. 

2. The ribs also assist in breathing by their alter- 
nate rising and falling. This action enlarges and 
diminishes the size of the chest, giving space for the 
expansion of the lungs. 

3. The slenderness and curved form of the ribs 
give lightness and strength, while the elastic carti- 
lages permit freedom of movement. Here, as else- 
where, Nature has provided what is required to carry 
on her work safely and freely. 



18 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson XI. 

THE PELVIS. 

(a) Position. — 1. The pelvis is the bony structure 
at the base of the trunk. (See Fig. 1.} 

(b) Construction. — 1. The pelvis is composed of 
three bones, — the two hip-bones and the sacrum, 
a wedge-shaped bone situated between the hip- 
bones. 

2. These bones are broad and flat, and are spread 
out to form a sort of basin, on which the abdomen 
rests. The spine stands on the sacrum, and the thigh- 
bones are attached to the hip-bones. 

(c) Work. — l. The office of the pelvis is to 
provide a strong foundation for the support of the 
bones of the spine and for the weight of the body 
above it. 

2. The pelvis also furnishes sockets for the at- 
tachment of the thigh-bones. 

Remarks. — The hip-bones are called by anatomists the 
innomincitct, or nameless bones. 

The sacrum (sacred), so called because it was anciently offered 
in sacrifice, stands, like the keystone of an arch, between the 
innominata, or hip-bones. 



The Skeleton. 19 

Lesson XII. 

BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

(a) The bones of the upper extremities are, — 

1. Collar-bone (clavicle) 2 bones. 

2. Shoulder-blade (scapula) 2 bones. 

3. Bones of upper arm (humerus) . . 2 bones. 

4. Bones of lower arm (ulna and radius)., 4 bones. 

5. Bones of Avrist (carpus) 16 bones. 

6. Bones of hand (metacarpus) . . .10 bones. 

7. Bones of fingers (phalanges) . . . 28 bones. 

Total 64 bones. 



Lesson XIII. 

THE SCAPULA. 

(a) Position. — 1. The scapula lies at the top and 

back of the chest, and is familiarly known as the 
shoulder-blade. (See Fig. 2.) 

(b) Construction. — 1. The scapula is a broad, 
thin, flat, triangular bone embedded in the flesh, and 
held in its place by muscles. 

2. It is not directly attached to the trunk. 

3. At its upper and outer corner it is connected 
with the collar-bone (clavicle), and at this point it 



20 Lessons on the Human Body. 

has a shallow socket for the head of the bone of the 
upper arm (the humerus). 

(c) Work. — 1. The scapula affords a foundation 
for the attachment of the muscles of the shoulders. 

2. The scapula also aids in forming the shoulder- 
joint, serving to connect the arm with the trunk of 
the body. 



Lesson XIV. 

THE CLAVICLE, OR COLLAR-BONE. 

(a) Location. — \. The clavicle is located at the 
top and in front of the chest. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The clavicle (clavis, a key) 
is a long, slender bone, shaped like the Italic/. 

2. It is fastened at one end to the breast-bone and 
the first rib, and at the other to the shoulder-blade. 
(See Fig. I.) 

(c) Work. — 1. The clavicle acts as a brace to 
hold the shoulder-joint out from the chest, and thus 
gives the arm greater play. 

Remarks. — If the clavicle be removed or broken, the head 
of the arm-bone will fall, and the motions of the arm be greatly 
restricted. 

The lower animals, whose front limbs are near each other, 
have no collar-bone. 



The Skeleton. 



21 



Lesson XV. 



THE SHOULDER-JOINT. 




Explanation of 
Fig. 6. 



In this cut is seen the 
union of the shoulder- 
blade, collar-bone, breast- 
bone, and the shoulder- 
joint. These are detached 
from the body : hence the 
view is a front one. A 
portion of the collar-bone 
of the right side is seen 
also, all the others be- 
ing on the left side. The 
figures from 1 to 11 indi- 
cate the ligaments which keep them united when the muscles are dissected 
away. 



Fig. 6. 



(a) Location. — 1. The shoulder-joint is located at 
the junction of the scapula and the humerus (bone 
of the upper arm), 

(b) Construction. — 1. The humerus articulates 
(joins with) the scapula, and forms a ball-and-socket 
joint. 

2. This joint consists of a shallow, cup-like cavity 
in the scapula, into which the rounded head of the 
humerus fits. 

(c) Work. — 1. The shoulder-joint permits a free, 
rotary motion, allowing the arm to move in any 
direction. 



20 Lessons on the Human Body. 

has a shallow socket for the head of the bone of the 
upper arm (the humerus). 

(c) Work. — 1. The scapula affords a foundation 
for the attachment of the muscles of the shoulders. 

2. The scapula also aids in forming the shoulder- 
joint, serving to connect the arm with the trunk of 
the body. 



Lesson XIV. 

THE CLAVICLE, OR COLLAR-BONE. 

(a) Location. — 1. The clavicle is located at the 
top and in front of the chest. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The clavicle (clavis, a key) 
is a long, slender bone, shaped like the Italic/. 

2. It is fastened at one end to the breast-bone and 
the first rib, and at the other to the shoulder-blade. 
(See Fig. 1.) 

(c) Work. — 1. The clavicle acts as a brace to 
hold the shoulder-joint out from the chest, and thus 
gives the arm greater play. 

Remarks. — If the clavicle be removed or broken, the head 
of the arm-bone will fall, and the motions of the arm be greatly 
restricted. 

The lower animals, whose front limbs are near each other, 
have no collar-bone. 



The Skeleton. 



21 



Lesson XV. 



THE SHOULDER-JOINT. 




Explanation of 
Fig. 6. 



In this cut is seen the 
union of the shoulder- 
blade, collar-bone, breast- 
bone, and the shoulder- 
joint. These are detached 
from the body : hence the 
view is a front one. A 
portion of the collar-bone 
of the right side is seen 
also, all the others be- 
ing on the left side. The 
figures from 1 to 11 indi- 
cate the ligaments which keep them united when the muscles are 
away. 



Fig. 



dissected 



(a) Location. — 1. The shoulder-joint is located at 
the junction of the scapula and the humerus (bone 
of the upper arm), 

(b) Construction. — 1. The humerus articulates 
(joins with) the scapula, and forms a ball-and-socket 
joint. 

2. This joint consists of a shallow, cup-like cavity 
in the scapula, into which the rounded head of the 
humerus fits. 

(c) Work. — l. The shoulder-joint permits a free, 
rotary motion, allowing the arm to move in any 
direction. 



22 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Remarks. — The shoulder-joint is easily dislocated (put 
"out of joint"), because its socket is so shallow: still, if it 
were deeper, the arm could not move so freely. 



Lesson XVI. 



THE ARMS. 




Fig. 



Explanation of 
Fig. 7. 

All the bones of the arm, 
fore-arm, and hand, are here 
exhibited in connection, -with 
reference to impressing it on 
the mind, after having read a 
short description of the indi- 
vidual parts of the upper ex- 
tremity. 

a is the head of the arm- 
bone, articulated to the 
shoulder. 

b, the joint, or elbow, 
formed by the ulna and lower 
end of the arm. 

c, the shaft of the os humeri, 
or arm. 

d, the radius, or handle of 
the hand, united solely to the 
wrist. 

e, the ulna, which alone 
forms with the arm the joint. 



(a) Construction. — 1. That portion of an arm 
between the shoulder and the elbow consists of a 
single bone, called the humerus. 

2. That portion of an arm between the elbow and 



The Skeleton. 23 

the wrist is composed of two bones, the ulna and the 
radius. 

3. The radius extends to the hand ; but the ulna, 
u'hile connected with the elbow, does not reach the 
hand. 

4. The ulna is the smaller of the two bones of 
the lower part of the arm, and it is situated on the 
inner or little-finger side of the arm. The radius is 
placed on the outer or thumb side of the arm. 

5. The arms are attached to and suspended from 
the scapula, at the shoulder. 

6. The bones of the arm furnish attachment for a 
large number of muscles that move the hand and 
fingers. 



Lesson XVII. 

THE ELBOW. 

(a) Position. — 1. The lower end of the humerus 

articulates with the upper ends of the ulna and 
radius, forming a hinge-joint known as the elboiv. 

(b) Construction. — 1. At the elbow, the rounded 
head of the radius fits into a shallow cavity in the 
ulna. 

2. The ulna at the elbow is large, and it assists in 
giving strength to the joint. 

(c) Work. — 1. The upper end of the radius turns 
upon the double surface furnished it by the ball of 



24 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



the humerus and the partial cup of the ulna, allow- 
ing a gliding motion in such a way that the palm of 
the hand may turn in different directions. 




Explanation of Fig. 8. 

Short ligaments of the elbow are here 
demonstrated. The wonder is, how the 
elbow-joint can ever be dislocated with- 
out entirely ruining the whole ligamen- 
tary arrangement. The figures from 1 to 
4 not only give the locality of each liga- 
ment, but even the figure. 



2. The elbow-joint permits motion in two ways, 
i.e., backward and forward, and a rotary motion of 
the lower arm. 



Lesson XVIII. 




THE WRIST. 

Explanation of Fig. 9. 

This diagram shows the connection of the 
little bones of the carpus, or wrist, with the two 
long bones of the fore-arm. 

1, the ulna. 

2, radius. 



4, lunar e. 

5, cuneiforms 

6, pisiforme. 

7, trapezium* 

8, trapeziodes. 

9, magnum. 

The letters mark the ligaments which tie 
them together. 



Fig. 9. 



The Skeleton. 



25 



(a) Position. — 1. The wrist is located between 
the arm and the hand. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The wrist, or carpus, con- 
sists of eight very irregular bones, arranged in two 
rows. 

2. One of these rows articulates with the bones 
of the arm ; the other, with the bones of the hand. 



Explanation of Fig. 10. 

Another plan of the bones of the 
wrist, showing them placed in two 
rows. This is a back view of the car- 
pus of the right hand. 

a, the boat-shaped bone ; 

b, the half-moon shaped ; 

c, the wedge-shaped ; 

d, the pea-shaped ; which make the 
upper row, joining the fore-arm. 

In the second row are the four others, 
e,f, g, h, which are united by a joint to 
the palm of the hand. 




Fig. 10. 



3. The bones are held so firmly together by liga- 
ments that they are seldom displaced. 

(c) Work. — l. The wrist forms a hinge-joint, and 
admits of motion in two directions, i.e., backward 
and forward, and a gliding motion from side to side. 

2. The arrangement of these bones admits of but 
little variety of motion, but combines great strength 
with elasticity. 



26 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson XIX. 

THE HAND. 




Explanation or Fig. 11. 

Here is presented a back view of all 
the bones of the hand as they are con- 
nected with the eight little bones of the 
wrist. Each bone is so distinctly repre- 
sented, that a very young child may 
understand the arrangement. 



Fig. 11. 



(a) Position. — 1. The bones of the palra of the 
hand, metacarpus (meta, beyond,- and ~karpos, wrist), 
articulate with the bones of the wrist. The meta- 
carpal bones are five in number in each hand. 

2. Each of the bones of the palm articulates with 
a thumb or a finger, the bones of which are named 
phalanges (the plural of phalanx, meaning a rank). 
The metacarpus and phalanges comprise the bones 
of the hand. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The bones of the palm ar- 



The Skeleton. 27 

ticulate at one end with the bones of the wrist, and 
at the other with the bones of the fingers. 

2. The first bones of the fingers are so joined to 
the palm of the hand as to permit the motion of a 
hinge-joint, and also of a side wise motion. The other 
bones of the fingers form simple hinge-joints. 

3. The first bones of the thumbs are not con- 
nected with the others of the fingers, and have a 
freedom of motion peculiar to themselves. 

4. There are three bones in each finger, and but 
two in each thumb. 

(c) Work. — 1. The hand is beautifully and skil- 
fully arranged, and adapted to an almost infinite 
variety of purposes. 

2. The numerous joints of the fingers, and the 
varying length of their bones, enable them to fit the 
hollow of the hand when it is closed, and to grasp 
objects of varying size, from a fine needle to a large 
bar of iron. 

Remarks. — The hand in its perfection belongs to man 
alone. Its wonderful structure is suited to obey the require- 
ments of the mind which directs it, and gives to man a superi- 
ority over all other animals ; for none other is equipped with an 
instrument so fully capable of performing the great variety of 
motion and work. 

The hand is not only a wonderful instrument of motion, but 
it is also the chief organ of touch or feeling. And what a 
delicate instrument it is for this purpose ! 



28 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Lesson XX. 

BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

a. The bones of the lower extremities are, viz., 1 — 

1. The femur, or thigh-bone .... 2 bones. 

2. The patella, or knee-pan 2 bones. 

3. The tibia, or shin-bone 2 bones. 

4. The fibula, or smaller bone of the 

lower leg 2 bones. 

5. The tarsals, or bones of the instep . 14 bones. 

6. The metatarsals, or bones beyond the 

instep 10 bones. 

7. The phalanges, or bones of the toes . 28 bones. 

Total 60 bones. 



Lesson XXL 

THE HIT AND KNEE. 

(a) Structure of the Hip-Joint. — 1. The femur 
Qfemoris, the thigh), or thigh-bone, articulates with 
the hip-bone (pelvis), and forms a ball-and-socket 
joint. 

2. In the sides of the hip-bones there are cup-like 
hollows, into which the upper end of the femur fits 
snugly. A strong ligament, attached to the ball-like 

1 The number of bones given above includes both of the legs. 



The Skeleton. 



29 



end of the femur and to the centre of the socket, 
binds the bones together. 

3. So tightly does the femur 1 fit in the deep 
socket, that .the pressure of the air holds it in place, 
even after the flesh is removed, and considerable force 
is required to separate the ball from the socket. 



Explanation of Fig. 12. 

This is a drawing of the lower part 
of the hip-bone, or 0.5 innominatum, 
in which is seen the head of the thigh- 
bone, tied into its socket by a short 
round cord, to keep it always in place. 
Were it not for this curious provision, 
by a thousand unguarded movements 
the hip would be thrown out of joint. 

b, the cord that keeps the bone in its 
socket. 

c, the socket in the hip-bone. 

d, a rim of the socket, to deepen it. 
/, the thigh-bone head. 

6, the point of bone on which we sit. 




(b) Work. — l. The hip-joint permits the raising 
of the leg, as in walking. 

(c) Construction of the Knee. — 1. The lower end 
of the femur joins the upper end of the tibia, and 
forms the hinge-joint known as the knee-joint. 

2. The patella {patina, a little dish), a chestnut- 
shaped bone, is firmly fastened over the joint in 
front. It protects and strengthens the joint. 



1 The femur is the longest and strongest bone of the body, 
bears the entire weight of the parts above it at every step. 



It 



30 



Lessons on the Human Body, 



3. The fibula (fibula, a clasp), the small outer 
bone of the lower leg, is securely fastened at both 
ends to the shin-bone. Its lower end may be felt on 
the outer ankle. This bone does not form a part of 
the joints, but seems merely to brace the tibia, and 
to offer a place for the attachment of muscles. It 
probably protects the ankle-joint. 



Explanation of Fig. 13. 

e, d, are the cruciate, or cross ligaments, re- 
markable in structure and office. 

f, the tendon of an extensor muscle. 

c, the head of the fibula, joining the side of 
the shin-bone. 

a, the articulating surface of the lower end of 
the thigh-bone, covered by the knee-pan. 

b refers to the broad ligament, turned down 
from the joint to expose the cross ligaments, 
having the knee-pan on it. 



Fig. 13. 

(d) Work. — l. The knee-joint permits flexion, or 
bending of the limb, about midway of its length, in 
a direction opposite that: provided by the hip-joint. 
It also allows a slight rotary motion. 

Remarks. — The patella, being held in its place only by 
muscles, is easily displaced, and frequently slips aside. From 
its position it is extremely liable to receive blows which would 
otherwise fall directly upon the other bones of the joint ; and, 
while protecting these, it not infrequently becomes fractured. 
Such an injury, however, is not so serious as the fracture of 
the other bones would be. 




The Skeleton. 



31 



Lesson XXII. 

THE ANKLE AND FOOT. 




Explanation of Fig. 14. 
These three plans show how the two bones of the leg are united above the 
ankle-joint. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 7, 6, mark the ligaments which bind them firmly. 

(a) Structure of the Ankle. — 1. The lower end 
of the tibia articulates with the tarsals (tarsus, the 
ankle), or bones of the instep, forming a hinge-joint. 

(b) Work. — 1. The ankle-joint permits the bend- 
ing necessary to easy motion of the foot in walking. 
Without this joint the foot could only be raised and 
lowered stiffly, without the rocking motion seen in 
walking. This joint also admits a slight sidewise or 
wagging movement of the foot. 

(c) Structure of the Foot. — l. The foot consists 
of twenty-six bones, — seven tarsal bones, five meta- 
tarsals, and fourteen phalanges. 



32 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. The structure of the foot is very similar to 
that of the hand. 




Fig. 15. 
Explanation of Fig. 15. 

By this diagram the skeleton of the foot will be clearly understood, even 
without the aid of the bones. Twenty-six bones are here so curiously grouped 
together, that an arch is made between the heel and ball of the great toe. 

a shows the five bones of the metatarsus. 

d, e, g, and h point out the five bones of the instep, or tarsus. 

b and c indicate the phalanges^ or toes. 

3. The tarsal bones form the arch or instep of the 
foot. These bones are irregular in shape, but exactly 
adapted to each other. They are firmly, but not im- 
moyably, bound together by ligaments. The arch, 
therefore, allows a little spring to the foot, giving it 
elasticity. 

4. The bones of the instep articulate with the 
metatarsals (meta, beyond, and tarsus, ankle), and 
these again each articulate with the first bone of a 
toe, precisely as the bones of the palm of the hand 
join the bones of the fingers. 

(d) Work. — 1. The foot is the instrument used in 
walking, running, and standing, and serves as a base 



The Skeleton. 33 

for the support of the entire body when in an erect 
position. 

2. When the foot is not cramped by tight shoes, 
its action' is very graceful and elastic. As we step, 
the weight is first thrown on the ball of the foot 
causing the sole to broaden and lengthen. The toes 
spread apart, and the springy arch of the foot aids 
in lowering the heel to the ground with but little jar, 
thus completing a step. 

Remarks. — In consequence of the shoes worn by the 
people of civilized countries, deformity of the feet is very 
common. The shoes that are usually worn are narrowed in 
front of the ball of the foot, the toes are crowded together, — 
sometimes cross one another, — while in-grown nails, enlarged 
joints, corns, and bunions result from forcing the foot into 
unnatural and constrained position. Freedom and grace of 
movement are impossible under such conditions. Again: the 
extremely high-heeled shoe throws the weight of the body 
almost entirely upon the toes, and overtasks the muscles of 
the ball of the foot and calf of the leg. 



Lesson XXIII. 

RECAPITULATION. — CLASSES OF BONES. 

(a) Bones of the Head: — 

1. Skull 8 bones. 

2. Face 14 bones. 

3. Ears • 8 bones. 

Total 30 bones. 



34 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(to) Bones of the Trunk: — 

1. Spine 24 bones. 

2. Ribs 24 bones. 

3. Sternum 1 bone. 

4. Tongue 1 bone. 

5. Pelvis 4 bones. 

Total 54 bones. 

(c) Bones of the Upper Extremities: — 

1. Collar-bone (clavicle) 2 bones. 

2. Shoulder-blade (scapula) .... 2 bones. 

3. Upper arm (humerus) ..... 2 bones. 

4. Lower arm (ulna and radius) . . 4 bones. 

5. Wrist (carpus) 16 bones. 

6. Hand (metacarpus) 10 bones. 

7. Fingers (phalanges) 28 bones. 

Total 64 bones. 

(d) Bones of the Loiver Extremities: — 

1. Thigh-bone (femur) 2 bones. 

2. Knee-pan (patella) 2 bones. 

3. Shin-bone (tibia) 2 bones. 

4. Small bones of lower leg (fibula) . 2 bones. 

5. Instep (tarsals) . 14 bones. 

6. Beyond the instep (metatarsals) . 10 bones. 

7. Toes (phalanges) 28 bones. 

Total GO bones. 

Aggregate number in the skeleton . 208 bones. 



The Skeleton. 35 

Lesson XXIV, 

EXERCISE, DRESS, AND DEFORMITY. 

(a) Exercise. — 1. The health of the bones, as 
much as that of any other portion of the body, de- 
pends upon their proper nourishment and exercise. 

2. When a child is feeble and unhealthy, or when 
it grows up without exercise, the bones do not be- 
come firm and hard as they do when healthfully 
developed by exercise. 

3. The size and strength of the bones, to a con- 
siderable extent, depend upon exercise and good 
health. 

(b) Dress and Deformity. — 1. Distortion of the 
spine is produced by tight clothing about the waist. 
The liver occupies the right side of the body, while 
on the left side is the larger part of the stomach, 
which is often nearly empty. The tight clothing 
about the waist presses the spine over sidewise 
toward the unsupported part where the stomach 
lies : the elastic disks, or pads, between the bones are 
compressed on one side till they become thin, and 
harden into a wedge-like shape. This causes what 
is called lateral curvature of the spine, in which one 
shoulder becomes higher than the other. 

2. Many a school-girl whose waist was originally 
of a proper and healthful size has gradually pressed 
the soft bones of youth by tight clothing at the 



36 Lessons on the Human Body, 

waist, till the lower ribs, that should rise and fall 
with every breath, become entirely unused, and the 
organs of the chest and abdomen are forced out of 
place, distorted and hampered in their work by the 
compression. The troubles induced by this habit 
are of the most serious character. Diseases of the. 
liver, dyspepsia, and consumption are among its legi- 
timate results, while other disorders of a less definite 
nature are directly traceable to the same cause. 



Contracted Chest. 

An outline is here presented of the chest of a 
female, to show the condition of the bones, as 
they appear after death, in every woman who 
has habitually worn stays. 

All the false ribs, from the lower end of the 

breast-bone, are unnaturally cramped inward 

towards the spine; so that the liver, stomach, 

and other digestive organs in the immediate 

vicinity, are pressed into such small compass 

Fig. 16, that their functions are interrupted, and, in fact, 

all the vessels, bones, and viscera on which the 

individual is constantly depending for health, are more or less distorted and 

enfeebled. 



3. Another distortion of the spine is produced by 
constant stooping of the head over books or work. 
This constant bending of the head forward com- 
presses the pads, or disks, in front, while they grow 
thick at the back. Hardening in this shape, they 
act as wedges which effectually prevent, in course 
of time, the head from assuming an erect position, 
causing the awkward projection forward of the head 
which is so often seen. Curvature of the spine is 




The Skeleton. 



37 



frequent^ caused by writing at desks which are too 
high, and which cause one shoulder to be raised higher 
than the other. 

Skeleton of a well-formed Female 
Chest. 

By comparing the accompanying plan of a 
well-developed and naturally proportioned 
female chest, with the frightful skeleton 
appended to the preceding note, the differ- 
ence is strikingly apparent. Here is breadth, 
space for the lungs to act in ; and the short 
ribs are thrown outward, instead of being 
curved and twisted down towards the spine, 
by which ample space is afforded for the 
free action of all those organs which in the 
other frame were too small to sustain life. 
The first may be regarded as the exact shape 
and figure of a short-lived female ; and this 
may be contemplated as an equally true 

model of the frame of another, who, so far as life depends upon a well-formed 
body, would live to a good old age. 




Fig. 17. 



4. Round shoulders, narrow chests, small, weak 
lungs, and diseases of the spine are common results 
of bad habits of dress and posture. It may be said 
that any habit which tends to distort the frame-work 
of the body is so much direct injury to one or more 
of its organs and its functions. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART I. 
THE SKELETON. 



Wesson I. 

(a) — 1. "What is the skeleton ? 

(b) — 1. Of how many bones is the skeleton composed? How 

does the number vary ? 

(c) — 1. State the use of the bones. 

(d) — 1. Why are some bones long ? 

2. Why are some bones short and thick ? 

3. What bones are flat ? irregular ? 

4. What have you learned of their general form and adapta- 

bility ? 

5. What is there peculiar about the structure of all the long 

bones ? 



Lesson II. 

(a) — 1. Of what materials are the bones composed ? 

(b) — 1. Of what use is the mineral matter ? 

2. Of what use is the animal matter ? 

(c) — 1. What is the nature of the substance of the bones ? 

2. With what are the hollow portions filled ? 

3. What of the bones in infancy ? What change occurs 

later? What of the toughness of bone in early life? 
What of brittleness of bone in old age ? 

41 



42 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. Does bone once formed remain during life? 

2. At what points do bones grow ? 

3. How are the bones supplied with nourishment ? 

(b) — 1. What occurs as soon as a bone has been broken ? What 

is the condition of the broken jDart after a few da$ T s ? 
What time is required to complete the repair ? 
Hem. — What is said of the ease with which the change of bone 
may be noticed ? What of mixing coloring-matter with 
the food of animals ? How is extra strength given a 
broken bone ? 



Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1. At what points are the bones joined to each other ? 

2. What is a joint ? 

(b) — 1. Describe the covering of the ends of bones forming a 

joint. 

2. With what is the cartilage again covered ? What oils the 

joints ? 

3. By what are the bones at the joints held together ? 

(c) — 1. Of what use are the joints ? 



Lesson V. 

(a) — 1. Mention the kinds of joints. 

(b) — 1. What motion do hinge-joints permit ? 

2. Describe a ball-and-socket joint. What movements will 
it allow ? Mention a joint of this kind. 
Item. — Tell what you know of the preparation of the fluid which 
oils the joints of animal bodies. What can you state 
about the durability of the joints ? 



Lesson VI. 

Into how many and what classes are the bones of the 
skeleton divided ? 



The Skeleton. 43 

(a) — 1. Into how many and what classes are the bones of the 

head divided? How many bones are in the skull? 
in the face ? In each ear ? How many teeth ? Give 
the total number of bones in the head. 

(b) — 1. What do the bones of the skull form? 

2. How are they united ? 

3. What is the form of the skull, and to wiiat adapted ? 

4. What is said of the form and strength of the front of the 

skull ? Why so formed ? 

5. What is the use of the packing between the bones ? 

6. What bones of the head are immovable ? 

(c) — 1. What protection do the bones of the skull afford ? . 

2. Of what use are the bones of the ear ? 

3. Describe the joints and movement of the lower jaw. 

4. Of what use are the teeth ? 



Lesson VII. 

(a) — 1. Name the classes of bones of the trunk. How many 

bones in each of these classes ? State the total number 
of bones in the trunk. 

(b) — 1. How many and what cavities has the trunk ? 

2. What does the chest contain ? 

3. What does the abdomen contain ? 

4. By what are these cavities separated ? By what enclosed ? 
Mem. — What is the diaphragm ? Describe its form. 



Lesson VIII. 

(a) — 1. What is the thorax ? 

(b) — 1. What is the natural form of the chest ? 

2. By what are its walls formed ? 

3. What rills the spaces between the bones ? 

(c) — 1. With what instruments are the bones of the chest pro- 

vided ? For what purpose ? 
2. What organs are situated in the chest? What is their 
nature ? and how protected ? 



44 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson IX. 

(a) — 1. Where is the spinal column situated? From what to 

what does it extend ? 

(b) — 1. Of how many bones is the spinal column formed ? "What 

are these bones called, and why ? 

2. What is found between each two bones ? Of what use are 

these pads ? 

3. Describe the form of the bones of the spine. 

4. How thick are they ? 

5. Describe the spinal canal and its contents. 

(c) — 1 . What does the spine support ? 

2. Tell what is said of its variety of movement. 

3. What is said of the wonderful structure of the spine ? 
Mem. — What is said of the compression of the pads ok the spine ? 

Of the height of man at different times ? 



Lesson X. 

(a) — 1. What are the ribs, and how arranged ? 

(b) — 1. To what are the ribs attached ? 

2. What is said of the seven uppermost ribs? 

3. Describe the five lower ribs. 

(c) — 1 . What is the use of the ribs ? 

2. In what do they assist ? 

3. What do the peculiar forms of the ribs give ? What do 

the cartilages permit ? 



Lesson XL 

(a) — 1. What is the pelvis, and where located ? 

(b) — 1. Of what is the pelvis composed? 

2. Describe the form of the bones of the pelvis, and state 
what form they take. What bones are attached to the 
pelvis above and below ? 

(c) — 1. W T hat is the use of the pelvis ? 

2. What sockets does it contain ? 
Mem. — What name is given to the hip-bones? What is said of 
the sacrum ? 



The Skeleton. 45 



Lesson XII. 

(a) Name the classes of bones in the upper extremities. 

1. How many bones form the collar ? What name is applied 
to them ? 

2. How many bones in the shoulder-blades ? What are they 
also called ? 

3. How many bones in the upper arms ? What called ? 

4. How many in the lower arms ? What is each called ? 

5. How many bones in the wrist ? Their name ? 

6. How many in the hands ? What called ? 

7. How many in the fingers ? Their name ? 

Lesson XIII. 

Locate the scapula. What familiarly called ? 
What is the form, etc., of the scapula ? In what is it em- 
bedded, and how kept in place ? 
Is it attached to the trunk ? 

To what is it connected, and where ? Describe its socket. 
What is the use of the scapula ? 
In the formation of what does it aid ? How ? 

Lesson XIV. 

Locate the clavicle. 

What is the shape of the clavicle ? Why so named ? 
To what is it attached ? 
What is the use of the clavicle ? 
Hem. — What is the effect of removing or breaking the clavicle ? 
Have the lower animals collar-bones ? 

Lesson XV. 

(a) — 1. Where, and at the junction of what bones, is the shoulder- 

joint ? 

(b) — 1. What bones form the shoulder-joint ? What kind of joint 

is it? 
2. Describe the construction of this joint. 



(a) 


-1. 


(b) 


- 1. 




2. 




3. 


(c)- 


- 1. 




2. 



(a) - 


-1. 


0>)- 


- 1. 




2. 




(c) 



46 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(c) — 1. What movements does this joint permit ? 
Mem. — What is said of the dislocation of the shoulder-joint? 
What if the socket were deeper ? 



Lesson XVI. 

(a) — 1. How many bones in the upper arm ? Give its name. 

2. How many bones between the elbow and wrist ? Give 

their names. 

3. To what does the radius extend ? The ulna ? 

4. Describe the ulna, and give its position. Locate the 

radius. 

5. To what are the arms attached, and from what suspended? 

6. To what do the bones of the arm furnish attachment ? 



Lesson XVII. 

What bones articulate at the elbow ? What kind of joint 

is formed there ? 
Describe the union of the radius and ulna at the elbow. 
What is the size of the ulna at the elbow ? In what does 

it assist at that point ? 
Describe the action of the bones at the elbow-joint. 
How many and what movements does the elbow-joint 

permit ? 



Lesson XVIII. 

(a) — 1. Where is the wrist located? 

(b) — 1. Of what does the wrist consist? How are the bones 

arranged ? 

2. With what does each of the rows of bones articulate ? 

3. By what are these bones held together ? 

(c) — 1. What kind of joint is the wrist? What motions does it 

allow ? 
2. What is said of the arrangement of its bone in regard to 
variety of movement? In regard to strength and 
elasticity ? 



(a) 


-1. 


(b) 


-1. 
2. 


(c)- 


-1. 
2. 



The Skeleton. 47 



Lesson XIX. 

(a) — 1. With what do the bones of the palm of the hand articu- 

late ? How many metacarpal bones in each hand ? 
2. With what bones do the other extremities of the bones of 
the palm articulate? What name is given the bones 
of the fingers ? What bones, then, comprise the entire 
hand? 

(b) — 1. With what bones do those of the palm articulate ? 

2. How are the first bones of the fingers joined to those of 

the palm? What two motions do these joints allow? 
What kind of joint do the other bones of the fingers 
form? 

3. How are the first bones of the thumbs placed ? What is 

said of their movements ? 

4. How many bones in a finger ? In a thumb ? 

(c) — 1. What is said of the arrangement of the hand? To what 

is it adapted ? 
2. What do the numerous joints, etc., permit ? 
Kern. — To what being does the perfect hand belong ? What does 
it confer upon man ? Of what is the hand the principal 
organ ? 

Lesson XX. 

(a) Write a table of the names and number of the bones of 
the lower extremities. 



Lesson XXI. 

(a) — 1. What bon«s articulate to form the hip-joint ? What kind 

of joint is it ? 

2. Describe the structure of the hip-joint. 

3. How tightly does the ball of the femur fit in its socket ? 

Note. Describe the femur. 

(b) — 1. What movements does the hip-joint permit ? 

(c) — 1. What bones articulate to form the knee-joint? What 

kind of joint is it ? 
2. Describe the patella, and tell how it is placed. Of what 
use is it ? 



48 Lessons on the Human Body. 

3. How is the fibula placed ? Of what use does it appear to 

be? 
(d) — 1. At what point does the knee permit bending of the leg? 

"What motions does it permit ? 
Mem. — What is said of the displacement of the patella? Of its 

liability to receive blows ? 

Lesson XXII. 

(a) — 1. What bones articulate to form the ankle-joint? What 

kind of joint is it ? 

(b) — 1. What kind of movement does the ankle-joint permit? 

What if this joint did not exist ? 

(c) — 1. Of how many bones does the foot consist? Give the 

names of the bones. 

2. To what is the foot similar in structure ? 

3. What bones form the arch of the foot ? Of what shape 

are they ? How are they bound together ? What does 
the arch allow ? 

4. With what do the bones of the instep articulate ? With 

what do the metatarsals again articulate ? 

(d) — 1. What are the uses of the foot ? 

2. What is said of the action of the foot ? Describe its ac- 
tion. 
Mem. — What is said of deformity of the foot being caused by 
shoes ? What is the effect of high-heeled shoes ? 

Lesson XXIII. 

Write a classification of the bones of the skeleton, giving 
the number in each sub-class, in the following order: 
(a) Bones of the Head; (b) Bones of the Trunk; (c) 
Bones of the Upper Extremities; (d) Bones of the 
Lower Extremities. 

Lesson XXIV. 

(a) — 1. Upon what does the health of the bones depend ? 

2. What effect has feebleness of health upon the bones of a 
child ? 



The Skeleton. 49 

3. Upon what do the size and strength of bones greatly 
depend ? 
(b) — 1. What tends to produce distortion of the spine? "What 
organs occupy the right and the left sides of the cavi- 
ties? In what condition is the stomach frequently? 
How does tight clothing curve the spine ? How are 
the pads of the backbone affected? 

2. What is said of the effect of tight clothing on many 

school-girls ? What diseases are caused by tight cloth- 
ing? 

3. What effect has the constant bending forward of the head 

on the spine ? What is said of bending over books in 
study, and of desks which are too high ? 

4. What are the common results of bad habits in dress and 

posture ? 



PART II. 

DIGESTION 



AND THE 



MACHINERY OF DIGESTION. 



" For now the cordial powers 
Claim all the wandering spirits to a work 
Of strong and subtle toil, and great event, 
A work of time; and you may rue the day 
You hurried with untimely exercise 
A half-concocted chyle into the blood." 



DIGESTION. 



Lesson I. 

FOOD. 



(a) Food and Hunger. — \. Waste and worn-out 
material is constantly being cast out from our bodies. 
The lungs and the pores of the skin are busily en- 
gaged in this work. 

2. If new material be not supplied to take the 
place of the worn-out substances, the body would 
dwindle and die. Without food, a man will starve 
in a few days. 1 

3. When the body needs material to take the 
place of that which is worn out, the nerves of the 
stomach become active in a peculiar way ; and, when 
the sensation is carried to the brain, we recognize it 
as hunger. 

1 Dr. Tanner's experiments prove, that, under favorable circum- 
stances, a strong man may live for many days without food. Dr. 
Tanner succeeded in abstaining from food forty days, but was fully 
supplied with fresh water and air, and with pleasant company, 
which aided very much in stimulating him in his long fast. 

53 




Fig. 18. 
Explanation of Fig. 18* 

In this view of the abdomen, d is the gall-bladder, lying on the under side 
of the liver, the dark mass to which it is attached. 

h is the coronary artery, which supplies the stomach, a, b, c, with blood. The 
curve of the stomach is well shown. 

e, e, the arteries which supply the caul, marked i, i s which falls down from 
the front of the stomach, over the intestines, like an apron. 

g, a vessel of the liver. The pancreas is behind the stomach. 
54 



Digestion. 55 

(b) Food and Force. — 1. All the strength of our 
bodies comes from the food we eat. After the food 
has gone through the different processes of digestion, 
it gives up to the blood properties that supply the 
body with nourishment and strength. Just as new 
fuel feeds the fire, so does food keep up the forces of 
the body. 

2. The waste of bodily substance differs in dif- 
ferent persons and under different circumstances. 
Great bodily action causes great waste or wearing- 
out of the particles. 



Lesson II. 

FOOD. — Concluded. 

(a) Why Food must be Digested. — 1. Food is not 
in condition to be taken into the blood from the 
stomach as soon as it reaches that organ. 

2. The food must be changed in various ways to 
prepare it for the use of the body. These changes 
are called digestion. 

(b) TTie Digestive Machinery or Organs.— 1. The 
organs of digestion are the mouth, teeth, tongue, and 
lips. 

2. The salivary glands. 

3. The pharynx. 

4. The oesophagus. 

5. The stomach. 



56 Lessons on the Human Body. 

6. The lacteals. 

7. The duodenum. 

Remarks. — Besides these organs, there are some others 
that render assistance in the work of digestion. These are 
the liver and the pancreas, which supply fluids that aid in pre- 
paring the food to become blood. The liver supplies a bitter 
fluid called bile, and the pancreas supplies the pancreatic juice. 



Lesson III. 

THE MOUTH. 

(a) Work of the Mouth* — 1. The lips and cheeks 
form the outward walls of the mouth. They retain 
the food when it is put into the mouth. 

2. The teeth cut and grind the food to a fineness 
suitable to the stomach. 

3. The tongue rolls the food about, and keeps it 
in its place between the teeth. 

4. The salivary glands (sacks) excrete (give out) 
saliya or spittle to moisten the food and aid in 
bringing out its taste. 

Remarks. — Nature has provided an organ to supply the 
proper kind and quantity of liquid to moisten our food in the 
mouth ; and it is therefore unnecessary, if not injurious, to de- 
prive her of her office by taking a " swallow " of tea, coffee, or 
water, with every morsel of food. Drink should be taken after 
eating, or, better still, before eating. 



Digestion. 57 



Lesson IV. 

THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 

(a) Position of the Salivary Glands.— -1. In the 

cheeks. 

2. Under the tongue. 

3. Under the jaw. 

(b) Construction of the Salivary Glands. — 1. 

They are small sacks. 

2. They open into the mouth through very small 
tubes. 

(c) Work of the Salivary Glands. — 1. They pour 
out saliva Qspittle) whenever the tongue and cheeks 
are put in motion. 

2. When the tongue and cheeks are not in motion, 
they let out no more saliva than enough to keep the 
mouth moist. 

3. The presence of any thing in the mouth, any 
motion of the jaws, the chewing of our food, tobacco, 
etc., excites these glands and causes a flow of saliva. 

4. The office of these glands is to moisten food 
and to keep the mouth moist. 

Remarks. — All motions of the tongue, cheeks, and jaws 
are usually needless, except when we eat, drink, or talk. These 
organs are under our control, and the flow of saliva is under 
our command. The chewing of tobacco, gum, etc., keeps the 
glands unduly excited ; and from being over-worked, they may 
become unable to properly perform their duty in moistening 
the food. 



58 Lessons on the Human Body. 

The moistening of the food by these glands is called insali- 
vation. The grinding of the food by the teeth is called mastica- 
tion. 



Lesson V. 

THE PHARYNX. 

(a) Position. — 1. The pharynx is located back of 
the mouth, and back of the palate. 

2. It connects the mouth with the oesophagus. 

(b) Construction. — 1. It spreads out like a fun- 
nel behind the palate, and it is open to receive the 
food. 

2. It has elastic walls formed of muscles. 

(c) Work. — 1. The office of the pharynx is to 
receive the food from the mouth, and to aid in swal- 
lowing. 

2. It acts as a funnel to the oesophagus. 



Lesson VI. 

THE OESOPHAGUS. 

(a) Tosition. — 1. The oesophagus extends from the 
pharynx downward to the stomach. 

2. It is located between the trachea (windpipe) 
and the spinal column. 

3, Its lower extremity opens into the stomach. 



Digestion. 59 

(b) Construction. — 1. It is a soft tube about nine 
inches long, and rather less than an inch in diameter. 

2. It is covered with two layers of muscles, one of 
which runs lengthwise, and the other winds around 
it successively from top to bottom. 

3. These muscles have a power of contraction, or 
of drawing themselves up like the earthworm, and of 
relaxing themselves, and being stretched out loosely. 

(c) Work. — l. When the food is thrust back- 
ward by the tongue, it passes into the pharynx, 
which closes upon it and forces it downward into 
the oesophagus. 

2. The uppermost ring of muscle contracts and 
closes the upper end of the oesophagus, thus prevent- 
ing a return of the food upward. 

3. The next band of muscle contracts and forces 
the food dowmvard; then the third band does the 
same, and each successive one continues the work 
till the food is forced downward into the stomach. 

4. While one band is contracting, the next one 
below is relaxing to admit the food. 

Remarks. — Vomiting is performed in the same way, ex- 
cept that the order is reversed. The lowest band contracts 
first, and then the next above, thus forcing the contents of the 
stomach upwards to the mouth. 



60 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson VII. 



THE STOMACH. 



(a) Position. — 1. The stomach is placed on the 
left side of the abdomen, just below and within 
the lower ribs. 

(lb) Construction. — 1. The stomach is a long, 
round, and somewhat irregularly-shaped sack. Its 
shape is like that of a bagpipe or shot-pouch. 

2. It has two openings, — one towards its left 
extremity, where the oesophagus opens into it, and 
the other at the right extremity, where it opens into 
the duodenum, the upper portion of the alimentary 
canal. 



9 7 17 4 



Explanation of Fig. 19. 

1, the oesophagus. 

2, the left opening of the diaphragm. 

3, the cardiac orifice of the stomach. 

4, the small curvature of the stomach. 

5, the great curvature of the stomach. 

6, the fundus of the stomach. 

7, the pyloric orifice. 

8, 9, 10, the duodenum, divided into 
three portions. 




Fig. 19. 



3. The stomach is fleshy, and very soft and flexible. 

4. It is composed of three coats, or layers ; viz., 



Digestion. 61 

the outer or peritoneal coat, the middle or muscular 
coat, and the inner or mucous coat. 

5. The outer or peritoneal coat is very tough and 
strong, and, being attached to the backbone and sides 
of the abdomen, it holds the stomach in place. 

6. The middle or muscular coat is composed of 
muscles, some extending lengthwise, and others cir- 
cularly. These muscles have a power of contraction 
and expansion. 

7. The inner or mucous coat is loose, soft, and 
spongy, and covers the inner surface of the stomach. 
It is not elastic. When the stomach is full, this coat 
is smooth ; but when the stomach is nearly empty, it 
is drawn into folds or furrows. 

Remarks. — The appearance and structure of the different 
coats of the stomach may be studied by examining the stomach 
of an animal, an ox or a cow, when prepared for food, and called 
tripe. 



Lesson VIII. 

THE STOMACH. - Concluded. 

(c) Work. — 1 • The gastric juice is prepared within 
the walls of the stomach, and thrown out from the 
inner or mucous coat. 

2. The gastric juice dissolves certain parts of the 
food, and helps to prepare it to be absorbed into the 
blood. This juice pours into the stomach in con- 



62 Lessons on the Human Body. 

siderable quantities when food enters it, and causes 
a fermentation which changes the solid food into a 
liquid. This process is called chymification ; and the 
pulp into which the food is thus changed is called 
chyme. 

3. During digestion in the stomach, the muscular 
coat contracts and expands in order to contract 
again, thus keeping the contents of the stomach in 
constant motion, mixed with the gastric juice, and 
moved toward the pylorus. 

4. The chyme is now ready to pass from the 
stomach to its second stage of digestion in the duode- 
num. 

Remarks. — The process of digestion requires the natural 
heat of the body. It has been found by tests that the tem- 
perature of the stomach is about 100°. 

If cold liquids be swallowed, the temperature will be lowered, 
and digestion will be stopped until the temperature again rises 
to the proper height. 

Different kinds of food require different lengths of time for 
digestion. 

About 1822 a young soldier named Alexis St. Martin, em- 
ployed in the service of the United States, was badly wounded 
by the bursting of a gun, which tore away the flesh of the . ab- 
domen and a part of his stomach. He got well ; but the hole 
in his stomach did not heal, and, by pulling aside a piece of 
skin, one could look into the stomach, and see its action. Dr. 
Beaumont tried many experiments with him, and, by putting 
different kinds of food into St. Martin's stomach through the 
hole left by the wound, found out how long different kinds of 
food required for digestion. A thermometer was passed into 
the stomach, and the temperature ascertained. Dr. Beaumont 



Digestion. 



63 



thus had an opportunity for observation and experiment which 
probably no other man has ever had ; and to these experiments 
we owe most of our knowledge of digestion. ■ 

Table giving the Length of Time required for the Digestion of a Few 
of the most Ordinary Kinds of Food. 



Article s. 


Condition. 


Time. 


Hours. 


Minutes. 


Pork, fat and lean .... 

Suet, beef, fresh 

Cabbage, with vinegar . . 
Ducks, domestic ..... 

Ducks, wild 

Cheese, old, strong . . • . 

Eggs, fresh 

Eggs, fresh 

Chicken, full grown . . . 

Bread, white 

Potatoes, Irish 

Codfish, dry 

Soup, bean 

Soup, barley 

Rice . 


Roasted .... 

Boiled 

Boiled 

Roasted .... 

Roasted .... 

Raw. ..... 

Boiled hard . . . 

Raw 

Fricaseed .... 

Baked 

Boiled 

Boiled 

Boiled 

Boiled 

Boiled 

Raw 

Raw 

Boiled 


5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 
2 
1 
3 


15 
30 
30 
00 
30 
30 
30 
00 
45 
30 
30 
00 
00 
30 
00 


Oysters, fresh 

Apples, sweet 

Dumpling, apple 


55 

30 
00 



64 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Lesson IX. 

THE INTESTINAL CANAL.— THE PYLORUS. 

(a) The Intestinal Canal, and Position of the 
Pylorus. — 1. The intestinal canal is a continuation 
of the stomach, and consists of the large and small 
intestines. 

2. The pylorus is an opening, or yalve, situated at 
the right or smaller end of the stomach. 

3. Pylorus signifies doorkeeper, and is so named 
because it allows the contents of the stomach, which 
have been properly prepared, to pass out, while other 
portions, not prepared, are held back. 

(b) Construction of the Pylorus.— ~L. The pylorus 
is a muscular valve, consisting of a band or ring of 
muscle, which surrounds the opening at the right end 
of the stomach. 

(c) Work of the Pylorus. — 1. While the stomach 
is engaged in its work, the pylorus draws itself firmly 
around the opening, like a shir-string, and prevents 
undigested food from passing out. 

2. As soon as the stomach has performed its 
work upon any portion of the food and reduced 
it to chyme, it carries the chyme to the opening 
where the pylorus is placed. The pylorus loosens 
its hold and permits the chyme to pass out freely ; 
but, when undigested portions of the food pre- 
sent themselves, the pylorus contracts, closes the 



Digestion. 65 

opening, and prevents them from leaving the 
stomach. 1 

3. When the stomach is supplied with food that 
it cannot digest, it endeavors to free itself of its 
stubborn tenant by forcing him out through the 
pyloric opening ; but the pylorus resists, and sturdily 
refuses to allow the door to be opened. After re- 
peated endeavors of the stomach to digest the food, 
and persistent refusals of the pylorus to permit it 
to pass out undigested, this faithful servant becomes 
weakened by the struggle. The undigested food 
is thrust through the pylorus and passes into the 
alimentary canal, causing irritation and discomfort 
on its way. 

4. These struggles with indigestible food finally 
result in great weakness of the machinery of diges- 
tion and cause dyspepsia, or other disorders of the 
stomach. 



Lesson X. 

THE DUODENUM. 

(a) Position. — \. The duodenum is situated just 
beyond the pylorus, at the upper end of the alimen- 
tary canal. 

1 In a recent case, the pylorus closed upon a prune-stone that 
had been accidentally swallowed, and held it so tightly in its folds 
as to cause inflammation and death. 



66 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. The pylorus opens into the duodenum from the 
stomach. 

(h) Construction. — 1. The duodenum is so named 
because it measures nearly twelve finger-breadths in 
length. It is bent upon itself, and fastened against 
the back wall of the abdomen. 

2. It is composed of three coats similar to those 
of the stomach. 

(c) Work. — l. When the chyme enters the duo- 
denum, two juices, the bile and the pancreatic juice 
are poured into the duodenum and mingle with the 
chyme, just as the gastric juice mingles with the food 
in the stomach. 

2. These juices aid in liquefying the chyme, and 
change it into a milky fluid called chyle. This pro- 
cess is called chylification. 

3. The inner lining of the duodenum, the mucous 
membrane, gives out (excretes) a slimy fluid which 
moistens the inner surface of the duodenum and 
protects it from any irritating quality of the con- 
tents. 

Remarks. — The moment chyle is formed, digestion proper 
may be considered as completed, though the chyle must still be 
absorbed, in its course through the smaller intestine, before it 
mingles with the blood. 



Digestion. 67 



Lesson XI. 

THE LACTEALS. 

(a) Position. — 1. The inner lining (mucous mem- 
brane) of the intestinal canal is filled with myriads 
of pores, or openings into hair-like tubes, which run 
outward through the walls of the intestine. 

2. These little tubes are called lacteals (lactis, 
milk). 

(b) Construction. — 1. These little tubes, when 
they first start from the inside of the intestine, are 
extremely small, but afterward they unite and be- 
come larger and fewer. 

2. The larger tubes again unite and form other 
and still larger ones, until all unite in one large tube 
named the thoracic lacteal duct. 

3. The mouths of the lacteals are so small as to 
be invisible, except by aid of a powerful microscope. 

(c) Work. — 1. The office of the lacteals is to ab- 
sorb, or suck up, some of the nourishing portions of 
the chyle. 

2. They convey the nourishing portions of the chyle 
into the thoracic duct. 

3. These tubes, large and small, and the thoracic 
duct form what is called the lacteal system. 



68 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson XII. 



THE THORACIC LACTEAL DUCT. 



(a) Position. — 1. This duct extends from the 
abdomen to the upper part of the chest, along the 
inner side of the backbone, and, bending forward, 
opens into the great vein at the right side of the 
heart. 



ID 




Explanation of Fig. 20. 



A portion of the thoracic duct, 
marked T D above, and T D below, 
lying in front of and in contact 
with the spine, S. 
. By the side of II is seen a por- 
tion of intestine attached to the 
mesentery, a kind of membranous 
ruffle, around the border of which 
the entire tube of the intestine is 
fastened. 

L L show a lacteal vessel run- 
ning from the inside of the intes- 
tine, charged with a milky fluid 
which is conducted into the mesen- 
teric glands, seen lying between 
the two folds of that membrane. 
In these the chyle is essentially 
changed in character, and perhaps 
receives additional fluid from the 

gland itself. From these the fluid next passes on through the excretory ducts, 

MM, which join the main trunk of the thoracic duct. 

(h) Construction. — 1. It is a tube about as large 
as a goose-quill. 

2. It is formed by the union of the lacteals. 

(c) Work. — l. Its office is to convey the nourish- 
ing portions of the chyle from the digestive appara- 



FiGt 20. 



Digestion. 69 

tus to the blood-vessels. It pours the chyle into the 
vein leading to the heart. 

Remarks. —The work of digestion consists of three dis- 
tinct parts; viz., mastication and insalivation in the mouth, 
change of food into chyme in the stomach, and the change into 
chyle, and separation of the worthless parts, in the duodenum. 
How these fluids exercise their latent powers in giving force 
and strength is precisely known only by the Creator. Enough, 
however, is known by us to guide us in the selection of proper 
food and in the proper use of the organs of digestion. 



Lesson XIII. 

HINTS ABOUT EATING. 

1. The stomach does its work best when the mind 
is at ease and the body is rested. Children often 
rush to their meals when heated and excited by play, 
and, though it does not at the time appear to injure 
them to take food while in this condition, still they 
will almost certainly suffer for it in time. It is much 
better to give the body time to rest ^tnd become cool, 
and the nerves a chance to become quiet, before eat- 
ing. The food will not only taste better, but will 
also digest better. 

2. Meals should always be eaten at regular hours.' 
Great injury is often done to the health by the habit 
of eating irregularly and between meals. By this 
practice the stomach is kept at work almost con- 



70 Lessons on the Human Body. 

stantly. The stomach needs time for rest as well 
as the other parts of the body do, and, if it be all 
the time worried with extra work, it must and will 
become tired out and worn out, and consequently 
unable to do its work. A very large part of the 
sicknesses of the body is caused by abuse of the 
stomach. About five hours should elapse between 
meals, and meals should be taken at the same hours 
each day. 

3. We should not eat hurriedly. The food should 
be properly masticated, and there is no worse habit 
connected with digestion than that of swallowing 
our food in haste. The few minutes gained by this 
habit are sure to be dearly paid for by and by. 

4. When food is taken into the stomach, the blood 
rushes toward that organ and raises its heat. This 
being so, we should keep the body as quiet as pos- 
sible for a time after eating, for violent exercise 
always causes a rush of blood to the surface of the 
body; and, as this draws the blood away from the 
stomach, it does not have the heat required to digest 
the food properly. It is not necessary that we re- 
main perfectly still, for moderate exercise which does 
not call the blood away from the stomach will harm 
no one. Such play as running, leaping, jumping 
rope, etc., should not be indulged in for at least a 
half-hour after eating. 

5. Brain-work, also, causes the blood to flow to- 
ward the head ; and children should not engage in 
hard study for at least an hour after a hearty meal. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS 



PART II. 
DIGESTION. 



Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. What are our bodies constantly giving off ? 

2. Why is new material necessary? What would result if 

we were deprived of food ? 

3. Describe what takes place in the stomach when the body 

needs new material. 

(b) — 1. What supplies all our strength? What does it supply, 

and when ? To what may this process be compared ? 
2. What is said of the waste of bodily substance in different 
persons, etc. ? What causes extra waste of substance ? 
Note. Belate what is said of Dr. Tanner's experiment. 



Lesson II. 

(a) — 1. What is said of the condition of food when it first enters 

the stomach ? 
2. What must happen to the food ? What are these changes 
called ? 

(b) — Name the organs of digestion. 

Bern. — What is said of certain other organs ? Of the pancreas 
and liver ? 

73 



74 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. "What do the lips and cheeks form, and what work do 
they perform in digestion? 

2. State the work of the teeth. 

3. State the work of the tongue. 

4. State the work of the salivary glands. In what organ do 

these processes occur ? 
Hem. — "What has nature supplied to moisten our food ? What is 
said of taking a "swallow" of liquid with our food? 
When should drinking be done ? 

Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1, 2, 3. Locate the salivary glands. 

(b) — 1. What are the salivary glands ? 

2. Into what and by what do they open ? 

(c) — 1. What do they pour out, and when ? 

2. What of their action when the tongue and cheeks are at 

rest? 

3. What things tend to excite these glands to action ? 

4. What is the office of the salivary glands ? 

Rem. — What is said of certain motions of the mouth, etc., when 
we are neither eating nor talking ? What is insaliva- 
tion ? What is mastication ? 

Lesson V. 

(a) — 1. Locate the pharynx. 

2. What two organs does it connect ? 

(b) — 1. What is the form of the pharynx ? 

2. Of what are its walls formed ? 

(c) — 1. What is the office of the pharynx ? 

2. What relation does it bear to the oesophagus ? 

Lesson VI. 

(a) — 1. How is the oesophagus situated ? 

2. What is its position in regard to the trachea and the 
spinal column? 



Digestion. 75 

3. Into what does its lower extremity open ? 

(b) — 1. What is the form of the oesophagus ? What is its size ? 

2. With what is the oesophagus covered? How are these 

layers of muscles arranged ? 

3. Describe the action of these muscles. 

(c) — 1. State how food reaches the oesophagus. 

2. Describe the first act of the oesophagus in swallowing 

food, etc. 

3. Describe the successive acts of the oesophagus in swallow- 

ing. 

4. What occurs while one band of muscle contracts ? Why 

is this ? 
Hem. — What is remarked of the process of vomiting ? 



Lesson VII. 

Give the position of the stomach. 

What is the stomach ? What does it resemble in shape ? 

State the number of its openings, and locate each. 

What is the nature of the substance of the stomach ? 

Of what is the stomach composed? Name the coats in 

their order. 
Describe the outer coat, stating its attachments. 
Describe the nature of the middle coat. 
Describe the inner coat. 
Mem. — How may the appearance of the stomach and its structure 

be readily studied ? 



Lesson VIII. 

(c) — 1. Where is the gastric juice prepared ? From which coat is 
it thrown out ? 

2. Of what use is the gastric juice ? What effect has it upon 

the food? What is this process called? What name 
is given to the pulpy mass ? 

3. Describe the action of the muscular coat of the stomach 

during digestion. 

4. For what is the chyme now ready, and into what does it 

pass ? 



(a) 


-1. 


(b)- 


-1. 




2. 




3. 




4. 




5. 




6. 




7. 



76 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Mem. — "What is remarked of the temperature of the stomach? 
What of the effect of swallowing cold liquids during 
digestion ? What of the length of time required for 
the digestion of different kinds of food ? Can you give 
the length of time required for any particular kinds of 
food ? Relate the account given of Alexis St. Martin. 

Lesson IX. 

(a) — 1. What is the intestinal canal ? 

2. What is the pylorus ? 

3. What does pylorus signify, and why is it so named ? 

(b) — 1. Describe the construction of the pylorus. 

(c) — 1. Describe the work of the pylorus while the food is being 

changed to chyme. 

2. What becomes of the food as soon as it is changed into 

chyme ? What does the pylorus then ? 

3. If undigested food presents itself, what does the pylorus ? 

4. In what do the struggles with indigestible food result? 

Note. Relate the action of the pylorus in closing upon 
a prune-stone. 

Lesson X. 

(a) — 1. Locate the duodenum. 

2. What opens into it from the stomach ? 

(b) — 1. Why is the duodenum so named? How is it bent, and 

how attached ? 
2. Of what is it composed ? 

(c) — 1. What occurs when the chyme enters the duodenum? 

Give the names of the juices. 

2. What effect have these juices on the chyme? What is 

this process called? 

3. Describe the work of the inner lining of the duodenum. 
Mem. — When is digestion completed ? What still remains to be 

done ? 

Lesson XI. 

(a) — 1. With what is the inner lining of the intestinal canal 
filled ? 
2. What are these little tubes called ? 



Digestion. 77 

(b) — 1. What is the size of the lacteals at first ? Afterward ? 

2. What do the largest branches of the lacteals finally form ? 

3. What do you know of the size of the mouths of the 

lacteals ? 

(c) — 1. What is the office of the lacteals ? 

2. Whither do they convey the nourishing particles ? 

3. What do the lacteals and the thoracic duct together form ? 

Lesson XII. 

(a) — 1 . From what to what does the thoracic duct extend ? 

Along what does it extend ? Into what does it finally 
open ? 

(b) — 1. Describe the thoracic lacteal duct. 

2. By the union of what is it formed ? 

(c) — 1. W T hat is the office of this duct? Into what does it pour 

the chyle? 
Mem. — Briefly state the processes of digestion in their order. 
What is remarked of the way in which the nutritive 
liquid obtains its power? 

Lesson XIII. 

1. When does the stomach perform its work best ? What is 

said of the practice of children in rushing to their meals 
when heated and excited by play ? 

2. What is said of regular hours for meals? Why should 

food be taken at regular intervals? What is said of 
rest for the stomach? From what does a large part 
of the sickness of the body arise ? About how many 
hours should elapse between meals ? 

3. What is said of hurried eating ? 

4. What is said of the rush of blood toward the stomach ? 

Why should we remain quiet for a time after eating ? 
What should not be engaged in for at least half an 
hour after eating ? 

5. What effect has brain-work on the flow of blood ? What 

is said of study after eating ? 



PART III. 

THE BLOOD 



AKD ITS 



CIRCULATION. 



" The blood, — the fountain whence the spirits flow, 
The generous stream that waters every part, 
And motion, vigor, and warm life conveys 
To every particle that moves and lives." 



THE BLOOD. 



Lesson I. 

BLOOD AND ITS COMPOSITION. 

(a) Wliatand JF7iere. — l. The blood is the liquid 
which circulates through the different parts of the 
body, and conveys to them materials for their nour- 
ishment. 

2. It is found in every part of the body except 
the outer skin (cuticle), the nails, the hair, the cor- 
nea of the eye, etc. 

3. The average quantity in the human body is 
about eighteen pounds. 

(b) Composition. — 1. The blood consists of a 
colorless liquid, called the plasma, in which float 
countless little circular bodies or disks. These little 
bodies are the corpuscles (i.e., little bodies) of the 
blood, and they are of a bright-red color. In human 
blood these corpuscles are 3-9V0 °^ an i RCn m diam- 
eter, and about y2"io"o °^ an nicn thick. 1 

1 The size of the corpuscles in human blood is not the same as 
that of the corpuscles in the blood of lower animals. This fact has 
aided greatly, in trials for murder, in discovering whether blood- 
stains on clothing and weapons were made by human blood. 

81 



82 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. The corpuscles are a little heavier than the 
plasma ; and, when the blood is drawn from a vein, 
they sink toward the bottom. Examination of blood 
that has been drawn a little while will discover the 
colorless plasma, in which but few corpuscles remain 
on the top. The corpuscles tend to collect like rolls 
of coin. 

3. The plasma, or nutritive fluid, is composed of 
water richly laden with materials derived from the 
food. 



Lesson II. 

USES OF THE BLOOD. 

1. The Mood contains the materials for making 
every organ of the body. 

2. The plasma contains mineral matter to supply 
the bones, and also animal matter to deposit with the 
muscles. 

3. The corpuscles contain the oxygen and certain 
other materials necessary to the life of the body. 
They are the air-cells of the blood. 

4. In short, the blood both carries new materials 
to all the organs, and removes worn-out particles of 
matter. It conveys oxygen, and removes carbonic 
acid gas. 

5. The blood is in constant motion during life. 
From the heart as a centre, a current is always flow- 



The Blood. 83 

ing toward the different organs, and from these or- 
gans a current is constantly returning to the heart. 
This movement is called the circulation of the blood. 1 
6. The organs of the circulation are, 

The heart, 

The arteries, 

The veins, 

The capillaries. 

Remarks. — If blood from a living animal be injected into 
the veins of one that is very weak from loss of blood, strength 
and new life return to the seemingly lifeless animal. This 
operation, called transfusion, has been practised upon man with 
similar results. It is still practised in cases where there has 
been a great loss of blood. 



Lesson III. 

THE HEART. 

(a) Position. — 1. The heart is the organ which 
propels the blood, and is situated just to the left of 
the centre of the chest. 

(b) Construction.— 1. The heart is a hollow, 
muscular organ, shaped like a strawberry, and sus- 
pended with the point downwards. Its size is 
roughly estimated to be equal to that of the fist. 

1 The circulation of the blood was discovered by William Har- 
vey in 1619. 



84 



Lessons on the Human Body. 




Fig. 21. 

Explanation of Fig. 21. 

a, the heart in its natural position, the sternum being taken away, and the 
pericardium laid open in front. 

c is the arch of the aorta, the artery from which all others arise. 

b, b, i, the pericardium. 

d, the descending cava, or great vein, that returns the blood from the head 
and arms into the right auricle. 

2. It is surrounded by a loose sack of membrane, 
the pericardium Qperi, about, cardia, the heart). The 



The Blood. 85 

pericardium is as smooth as satin, and gives out a 
liquid which keeps it moist and pliable. 

3. The heart is partitioned into four chambers. 
The two upper ones are called auricles (aures, ears), 
because of the shape of the flaps on their outside 
walls. The lower chambers are called ventricles 
(yentriculus, a cavity). 

4. The auricle and the ventricle on the same side 
communicate with each other by means of openings 
(valves) ; but the right and left sides of the heart 
are entirely separated by a muscular partition in 
which there is no opening. 

5. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than 
those of the auricles. This is a wise provision ; for 
it is by the powerful action of the ventricles that the 
blood is forced to the remotest regions of the body. 

0. The auricles need much less power, for they 
simply discharge their contents into the ventricles, 
which are near at hand, and their walls are not so 
thick. 

7. The valve between the right auricle and the 
right ventricle consists of three flaps of muscle, and 
is called the tricuspid valve (tri 9 three, cuspides, 
points). The valve between the left auricle and left 
ventricle consists of two flaps, and is called the bi- 
cuspid valve. The passages from the ventricles into 
the arteries are closed by half-moon-shaped valves, 
called semi-lunar valves. 



86 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson IV. 



THE HEART. — Concluded. 
3L* A 




Fig. 22. 
Explanation of Fig. 22. 



The double heart of man. 

q, the descending vena cava. 

o, the ascending vena cava. 

n, the right auricle. 

b, the right ventricle. 

k, the pulmonary artery. 
. I, I, the right and left branches of 
this artery, going to the lungs on 
either side of the chest. 

m, m, the veins of the lungs, which 



return what the artery sent in, to r, 
the left auricle. 

a, the left ventricle. 

c, e, f, the aorta, or great artery of 
the body, rising out of the left heart. 

g, the arteria innominata. 

h, the subclavian artery, going to 
the left arm. 

i, the carotid artery, which goes up 
the side of the neck to the head. 



Note. — The arrows show the course the blood moves in each of the vessels 
demonstrated with the heart: n, the right auricle; m,m, veins of the lungs; 
s, the left coronary artery; p, the veins returning blood from the liver and 
bowels. 






The Blood. 87 

(c) Work. — 1. The action of the heart consists 
of alternate contractions and dilations. During con- 
traction, the walls come forcibly together, and thus 
the blood is driven out. In dilation or expansion, 
the walls open or separate, and thus make room for 
a new supply of blood. 

2. The contraction of the right auricle drives the 
blood into the right ventricle : the riorht ventricle then 
contracts, and forces the blood through the pulmonary 
artery into the lungs. 

3. Leaving the lungs where the blood is purified, 
it returns by four pulmonary veins to the left auricle; 
the contraction of the left auricle drives the blood 
into the left ventricle; the left ventricle contracts, 
and drives the blood into a large artery called the 
aorta, the branches of which convey it to all parts of 
the body, except the lungs, to which it is returned, 
as first described, after circulating throughout the 
entire body. 

Remarks. — The heart itself is supplied with blood for its 
nourishment by two arteries which spring- from the root of the 
aorta. 

What is known as the beating of the heart is caused by the 
striking of the apex (lower end) of the heart against the peri- 
cardium, or sack which encloses it, and through it against the 
walls of the chest. 



88 



Lessons on the Human Body. 




Fig. 23. 



Explanation of Fig. 23. 

a, the trunk of the carotid ai'iery, which when compressed causes apoplexy 
and death. 

/, the occipital artery, going to the muscles of the back of the head. 

b, the larynx, or vocal box. 

n, the external carotid, branching outward. 

k, the temporal artery, felt beating in the temple. 

q, the nasal artery. 

r, the termination of the temporal artery in twigs on the top of the head. 



The Blood. 89 



Lesson V. 

THE ARTERIES. 

(a) Position. — 1. The arteries are tubes which 
spring from the heart. The branches of one great 
artery extend throughout the body, while another 
and its branches extend to the lungs. 

2. The large arteries and their principal branches 
are generally situated far beneath the surface, and 
their location gives them security from all ordinary 
danger. Many of them are found close to the bones, 
or running through safe passage-ways. The skin, 
hair, teeth, and bones are all provided with arteries. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The general arrangement 
of the arteries resembles that of a tree ; the great 
artery being the trunk, and its divisions, the limbs 
and twigs, continually growing smaller. 

2. Arteries are composed of three coats. The 
internal coat is smooth, polished, and moistened 
with an oily fluid to aid the easy flow of the blood. 
The middle coat consists of circular fibres, which are 
yellowish, dry, and elastic. This coat contracts and 
expands. The outer coat is dense and very elastic : 
it is so closely connected with the middle coat as to 
be difficult of separation from it. The coats are 
nourished by many capillaries. 

(c) Work. — 1. The arteries, being elastic, expand 
and contract at every beat of the heart, thus aiding 



90 Lessons on the Human Body. 

to keep the blood in regular and constant motion on 
its way through them. They carry the pure, nour- 
ishing blood to all the organs of the body. 

Remarks. — The flow of blood from an artery when cut 
differs from that of a vein. When an artery is cut, the blood 
spurts out "by jerks," at every impulse given it by the heart, 
while the flov; from a vein is slow and regular. 



Lesson. VI. 

THE CAPILLARIES. 

(a) Position. — 1. The capillaries (papilla, a hair) 
are situated between the ends of the arteries and the 
beginnings of the veins. 

(b) Construction. — 1. Capillaries are so much a 
part of both arteries and veins that it is impossible 
to tell where an artery ends, or where a vein begins. 
They are constructed like a fine net whose meshes 
are composed of tubes so small that they cannot be 
seen with the naked eye. They are only about 3- qV o" 
of an inch in diameter. 

2. They are placed so close together that the en- 
tire flesh is filled with them, and the prick of the 
finest needle would break great numbers of them. 

(c) WorJ,\ — l. The capillaries take up the nour- 
ishing particles of the arterial blood, and convey 
them to the flesh, muscles, bones, and to every part 
of the body in which they are located. 



The Blood. ' 91 

2. They receive the oxygen from the corpuscles 
of the blood, and in return give up carbonic acid gas 
and other impure and waste matter to the veins, 
which spring out of the capillaries. Thus they per- 
form a double work in serving both arteries and 
veins. 



Lesson VII. 

THE VEINS. 

(a) Position. — 1. The veins begin in the capilla- 
ries. Some are located deeply, and accompany the 
arteries : others are situated just under the skin, and 
do not follow the direction of the arteries. They 
are found in every organ of the body. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The Avails of the veins 
are not so thick as those of the arteries. They are 
formed of different coats ; the inner one being, like 
that of the arteries, smooth and polished. 

2. The inner coats are provided with folds, which, 
when extended, partly close the tube. These folds 
or valves are so arranged as to permit the blood to 
pass freely toward the heart, but, by letting them- 
selves down in the passage-way, prevent its backward 
flow. 

3. The veins are very small at first ; but, as they 
leave the capillaries, they unite, and increase in size 
while they diminish in number. At last they all 



92 Lessons on the Human Body. 

become united in one great vein, 1 which divides, just 
before reaching the heart, into two great branches, 
one of which is named the vena cava ascending, and 
the other the vena cava descending. These branches 
open into the right auricle. 

(c) Work. — 1. The veins may be called the sewers 
of the blood. They conduct the impure blood from 
the capillaries, and carry it back to the heart, from 
which it was first sent out on its mission, thus com- 
pleting the circulation. 

Remarks. — The rapidity with which the blood moves 
through the blood-vessels is influenced so much by our emo- 
tions and by circumstances, that it cannot be exactly deter- 
mined. It has been estimated that the whole volume of blood 
passes through the heart in about two minutes. 



Lesson VIII. 

RECAPITULATION. — MOVEMENTS OF THE BLOOD. 

1. From the right auricle to the right ventricle. 

2. From the right ventricle, through the pulmonary 
artery, into the lungs. 

3. From the lungs, through the pulmonary veins, 
into the left auricle. 

4. From the left auricle into the left ventricle. 

1 The great vein receives the new nourishing matter from the 
thoracic duct, and pours it, together with the old blood, into the 
heart. 



The Blood. 93 

5. From the left ventricle into the aorta and ar- 
teries. 

6. From the arteries into the capillaries. 

7. From the capillaries into the veins. 

8. From the veins back again into the right auricle 
of the heart, thus completing the circulation. 



Lesson IX* 

WHAT HASTENS THE CIRCULATION. 

1. In an adult in a normal condition, the heart 
beats about sixty times a minute, and consequently 
the pulse an equal number of times. 

2. The heart beats more rapidly during digestion, 
and under the influence of alcohol, coffee, or other 
excitants. 

3. Mental labor also quickens the action of the 
heart. 

4. Muscular exercise and violent efforts quicken the 
action of the heart, and increase the rapidity of the 
circulation. 

5. The action of the heart is greatly hastened by 
fever. 

6. Causes which tend to unduly excite and pro- 
long increased action of the heart should be avoided ; 
for the heart, like any other muscle, may be over- 
tasked and weakened, and thus rendered incapable 
of performing its ordinary work. 



94 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Lesson X, 

WHAT RETARDS THE CIRCULATION. 

1. During sleep the action of the heart is less 
rapid, and it shares somewhat in the repose of the 
other organs. 

2. Abstaining from exciting mental labor, muscular 
effort, and from the use of alcohol, coffee, and other 
stimulants, retards undue activity of the heart. 

3. Tight-fitting clothing obstructs the natural flow 
of the blood by pressing upon the blood-vessels. The 
great veins which carry the blood from the head to 
the heart lie very near the surface in the neck, and, 
when clothing is worn tightly about it, the flow of 
blood is obstructed, and congestion of the veins of 
the brain may result. 

4. At the junction of the chest with, the abdomen 
are located the lower portions of the lungs, the 
stomach, the liver, and here the aorta branches off 
into several large blood-vessels. It is of the greatest 
importance that the action of these organs and the 
circulation of the blood be not hindered at this point 
by tight clothing. 

5. Influences which tend to unduly obstruct the 
circulation of the blood and the free action of the 
organs must always result in disease, and shortening 
of life. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS, 



PART III. 
THE BLOOD. 



Lesson I, 

(a) — 1. What is the blood ? 

2. Where is the blood found ? 

3. What is the average quantity in the human body ? 

(b) — 1. How is the blood composed? What is the size of the 

corpuscles ? 

2. Describe the weight of the corpuscles, and state how they 

congregate. 

3. Tell what you know of the composition of the plasma. 

Note. How do corpuscles of human blood compare in 
size with those of the blood of the lower animals ? Of 
what use has a knowledge of this fact been in murder- 
trials ? 

Lesson II. 

1 . What materials does the blood contain ? 

2. In what materials is the plasma rich ? 

3. What are the corpuscles, and what do they contain? 

4. What office does the blood perform ? What does it convey 

to, and what remove from, the organs of the body ? 

5. State what you know of the motion of the blood during 

life. What are these movements called ? 

6. Name the organs of the circulation. 

97 



98 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Mem. — By whom and when was the circulation of the blood dis- 
covered ? What effect will the injection of blood from 
the veins of one animal into those of another that has 
lost much blood have ? What is this operation called ? 
Has the operation been practised upon man ? Are such 
operations now performed ? 

^Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. What is the heart ? Where is the heart located ? 
(t>) — 1. Describe the form and size of the heart. 

2. In what is it enclosed ? What is the name of this sack ? 

Describe it. 

3. Into what is the heart partitioned ? Name the upper 

chambers. The lower chambers. 

4. How are the chambers connected? Which sides of the 

heart do not open into each other ? 

5. Describe the walls of the ventricles. Why are the walls 

of the ventricles so thick ? 

6. Why do not the auricles need walls as strong as those of 

the ventricles ? 

7. Describe the opening (valve) between the right auricle 

and the right ventricle, and give its name. Describe 
the valve between the left auricle and the left ventricle, 
and give its name. Describe the openings outward 
from the ventricles, and give their names. 

Lesson IY. 

(c) — 1. What motions has the heart? W T hat occurs during its 
contraction? What when it expands? 

2. What occurs when the right auricle contracts ? What 

when the right ventricle contracts? Through what 
artery does the blood pass from the heart to the lungs ? 

3, What happens to the blood in the lungs, and what be- 

comes of it ? What is the effect of the contraction of 
the left auricle? Of the left ventricle? What then 
conveys the blood to all parts of the body ? 
Mem. — How is the heart itself supplied with nourishment ? What 
is the " beating of the heart " ? 



The Blood. 99 



Lesson V. 

(a) — 1 . What are the arteries ? Where situated ? 

2. Where are the large arteries located ? What advantage 

does their depth give them ? Near what are many of 

them found ? 
(b) — 1. What does the arrangement of the arteries resemble? 

Explain why. 
2. Of what are the arteries composed ? Describe the internal 

coat. The middle coat. The outer coat. By what are 

the coats nourished ? 
(c) — 1. Describe the action of the arteries. In what does this 

action aid ? What kind of blood do the arteries carry ? 
Rem. — Describe the flow of blood from an artery that has been 

cut. From a vein. 

Liesson VI. 

Where are the capillaries located ? 

Why is it impossible to tell where an artery ends, and 
where a vein begins? How are the capillaries con- 
structed? What is their size? 

How closely are they placed ? 

What work do the capillaries perform ? 

What do they receive from the corpuscles ? What do 
they give up in return? What two organs do they 
serve ? 

liesson VII. 

(a) — 1. Where do the veins begin ? Describe their general loca- 

tion. 

(b) — 1. What can you say of the thickness of the walls of the 

veins ? Of what are they composed ? 

2. With what are the inner coats provided ? How are these 

valves constructed ? 

3. What is the size of the veins at first ? What takes place 

soon after they leave the capillaries ? Describe their 
final union. To what does the final great vein extend, 
and how ? 



(a)- 
<b)- 


-1. 
-1. 


(c)- 


2. 

-1. 

2. 



100 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(c) — 1. What may the veins be called? What work do they 
perform? Note, What does the great vein receive 
just before it empties into the heart? 

Mem. — Why is it difficult to ascertain how rapidly the blood 
flows through the system? How quickly does the 
entire blood pass through the heart? 

Lesson VIII. 

1. Where does the blood go from the right auricle ? 

2. Where does it go from the right ventricle ? 

3. Where from the lungs ? 

4. Where from the left auricle ? 

5. Where from the left ventricle ? 

6. Where from the arteries ? 

7. Where from the capillaries ? 

8. Where from the veins ? 

Lesson IX. 

1 . How frequently does the heart of an adult beat ? 

2. How does digestion influence the action of the heart? 

Alcohol, etc. ? 

3. How does mental labor affect the action of the heart ? 

4. What is said of the effects of muscular exercise and of 

violent efforts ? 

5. How is the circulation affected by fever ? 

6. What is said of causes which unduly excite, and produce 

prolonged increase of, the heart's action ? 

Lesson X. 

1. What influence has sleep on the action of the heart ? 

2. How may increased action of the heart be avoided in 

special instances? 

3. Tell what you know of the bad effects of tight-fitting 

clothing. Of tight clothing about the neck. 

4. What organs are situated at the junction of the chest and 

abdomen ? What sometimes interferes with the work 
of these organs ? 

5. What is said of habits that tend to unduly hasten the 

circulation ? 



PART IV. 



THE 



BREATHING APPARATUS. 



" Fly, if you can, these violent extremes 
Of air : the wholesome is nor moist nor dry. 
But as the power of choosing is denied 
To half mankind, a further task ensues, — 
How best to mitigate these fell extremes, 
How breathe unhurt." 



THE BREATHING APPARATUS 



Lesson I. 



THE ORGANS OF BREATHING. — THE LARYNX. 



(a) — 1. The organs of respiration or breathing 
are, — 

1. The larynx. 

2. The trachea. 

3. The lungs. 

Note. — The passages of the nose and the mouth may he con- 
sidered as the outer openings of the breathing apparatus. 

8 



Explanation of Fig. 24. 

This figure gives a front view of the larynx^ or vocal 
box. 

The bone at the root of the tongue is seen, like half of a 
hoop, marked 8. 

The front of the thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple) is 
marked 2. 

3, the cricoid cartilage. 

5, 6, other cartilages. 

7, 7, are ligaments that suspend the bone of the tongue. 

9, a ligament which connects the bone of the tongue 
with the Adam's apple, or thyroid cartilage. 

The windpipe {trachea) is the tube at the bottom of the 
larynx. 



103 




Fig. 24. 



104 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(b) Position. — 1. The larynx is situated at the 
upper end of the windpipe, just behind the tongue. 

2. In the front of the neck there is a bulge, which 
changes its place when we swallow. This bulge is 
frequently called Adam's apple. It is the front of 
the larynx. 

(c) Construction. — 1. The larynx is a small, mus- 
cular bulb. It is really an expansion of the upper 
end of the trachea, or windpipe. 

2. It is a complex piece of mechanism, resembling 
a box composed of pieces of cartilage which may be 
moved on each other, and which enclose bands of 
membrane, — the vocal cords, — by whose vibrations 
voice is produced. The cartilages of which the 
skeleton of the larjaix is composed are five in num- 
ber. 

3. The larynx opens into the back chamber of the 
mouth 'by a narrow chink called the glottis. This 
opening is provided with a small, spoon-shaped lid 
called the epiglottis (epi, upon, glotta, the tongue). 

(d) Work. — l. The glottis is usually open; but 
the epiglottis is placed there to cover the opening 
when the food passes over it on its way to the oesoph- 
agus. When the act of swallowing is not taking 
place, this valve stands open for the free admission 
of air into the trachea and lungs. 

2. The larynx is the organ of voice. On each 
side of the glottis elastic membranes project from 
the sides of the larynx across the opening. These 
membranes are called " vocal cords," and, when not 



The Breathing Apparatus. 105 

in use, they spread apart and leave an angular open- 
ing, through which the air passes into and out of 
the lungs, without producing voice. 

3. When we wish to use the larynx in producing 
voice, the muscles attached to this wonderful instru- 
ment tighten the vocal cords, draw them parallel with 
each other, and very close together. The passage of 
a current of air between the parallel edges of the 
vocal cords, sufficiently strong to set them vibrating, 
produces voice. Sounds are thus produced in the 
same way as by the rapid vibrations of the "tongues" 
of the accordeon, or the strings of the violin. 

4. Certain muscles which are attached to the 
glottis draw its sides more closely together, or allow 
them to separate, and, by thus narrowing or widen- 
ing this chink, the sounds made are varied and 
modified. 

Remarks. — The larynx is but slightly developed in early 
infancy, and does not at this period of life differ in size in the 
two, sexes, nor does the character of the voice of the two differ 
at this time. This organ remains nearly stationary in size 
from the third to the twelfth year ; but about the fourteenth 
year it almost doubles in size in the boy, and the voice takes a 
masculine tone. This change is rapid, and is nearly completed 
in the course of a year, though the larynx is not fully developed 
till about the twenty-fifth year. In girls, it increases about a 
third in size ; and the larynx of a woman is smaller than that 
of man. These differences in size account for the compass 
and power which distinguish the voice of man from that of 
woman. 

The tones of the voice, usually, will be high or low accord- 



106 Lessons on the Human Body. 

ing as the vocal cords are tightened or relaxed. When, how- 
ever, the larynx is diseased by what is known as a cold, the 
natural tones are changed, and frequently destroyed, and the 
afflicted person can only speak in a whisper. 

If we laugh, talk, or attempt to breathe when we swallow, 
the epiglottis opens slightly, and allows particles of food to 
"go the wrong way," that is, into the larynx; and this organ 
endeavors to expel the trespassing particles by a violent expul- 
sion of air from the lungs. Such an expulsion of air is called 
a cough. 



Lesson II. 

THE TRACHEA OR WINDPIPE. 

(a) Position. — 1. The trachea (trachea, rougji) is 
a tube which, extends from the larynx downward to 
the lungs, in front of the oesophagus, and parallel 
with it. 

2. The rings of cartilage which form the skeleton 
of the trachea are easily felt in front of the throat. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The trachea is composed 
of stiff, parallel rings of gristle ensheathed in a tough 
membrane. The rings of gristle strengthen and keep 
it open for the passage of air. 

2. At its lower end the trachea divides into two 
branches called bronchi, one of which leads to the 
right lung, and the other to the left lung. 

3. After entering the lungs, these branches again 
divide into smaller ones, and these into still smaller 



The Breathing Apparatus. 107 

ones, like the branches and twigs of a tree ; and the 
tiny branches of these tribes at last end in clusters 
of air-cells, which are only about y^ of an inch in 
diameter. 

4. These air-tubes, large and small, are lined with 
an extremely delicate, silky lining called mucous mem- 
brane. 

(c) Work. — 1. The trachea and its branches con- 
vey the air to the lungs, carrying it into the minute 
air-cells, in which it gives up its oxygen and becomes 
charged with gases set free from the blood, when it 
is conveyed out of the body by the same air-tubes. 

Remarks. — The lining of the air-tubes is so extremely- 
delicate and sensitive, that, while it will bear the presence of 
pure air, it will not permit the touch of any other substance, 
not even that of a drop of pure water. Indeed, it may be 
safely asserted that carbonic acid gas when undiluted cannot 
be breathed. The epiglottis, like the faithful pylorus of the 
stomach, stands sentinel, closes the door, and forbids the pas- 
sage into the lungs, for the time at least, of a gas so deadly. 

Most of our colds and coughs are results of irritation or 
inflammation of the mucous membrane of -the air-tubes and 
lungs. 



108 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson III. 

THE LUNGS. 




Explanation of 
Fig. 25. 

«, the left lung. 
by the right lung. 

c, the windpipe. 

d, the heart. 

e, the great artery- 
carrying blood to 
the lungs. 

/, the great vein. 

g, the great artery- 
carrying blood to 
the body. 



Fig. 25. 

(a) Position. — 1. The lungs are situated within 
the chest, one on the right side and the other on the 
left, with the heart between them. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The lungs are very soft, 
spongy, and elastic, contain but little flesh, and are 
mainly composed of small tubes and air-cells. 

2. In shape, the lungs are irregular cones, resting 
on their bases, and supported from beneath by the 
diaphragm. 

3. The substance of the lungs is of a grayish rose- 
color. They are surrounded by a double sack, the 



The Breathing Apparatus. 109 

pleura, one layer of which is attached to the lungs, 
and the other to the walls of the chest. It gives out 
a fluid which oils its surface so that one layer may 
glide upon the other with such perfect ease that the 
lungs are well protected from injury in coming in 
contact with the walls of the chest. 

4. The lungs are not muscular, and therefore have 
no power to act for themselves in respiration. 

(c) Work. — l. The office of the lungs is to supply 
the blood with oxygen, and to remove the carbonic 
acid gas and watery vapor which should be cast out 
from it. 

2. On entering the air-cells of the lungs, the air 
is separated from the blood, which has been sent to 
the lungs from the heart for purification, by the thin 
walls of the cells only. 

3. The oxygen of the air passes through the pores 
of the walls of the air-cells, combines with the im- 
pure blood, which is of a dark color, changes it to a 
brilliant red. While the air gives up its oxygen to 
the blood, it receives in return carbonic acid gas, 
watery vapor, and other impure waste-matter, with 
which the blood has become charged in its journey 
ihrough the system ; and these are cast out from the 
lungs at every expiration (breathing out). 

4. Charged anew with the life-giving oxygen, and 
relieved of poisonous gases and worn-out particles, 
the pure, red stream flows back to the heart to be 
sent again on its missipn to all parts of the system, 
carrying nourishment to them. 



110 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Remarks. — Common air is mainly composed of two fluids, 
oxygen and nitrogen, there being about twenty-one parts of oxy- 
gen to seventy-nine parts of nitrogen. Oxygen enters into the 
composition of all animal and vegetable matter, and is con- 
stantly necessary to life in all its various forms, — to the pon- 
derous elephant and the tiniest insect, to the immense tree of 
the forest and the smallest blade of grass. 

When the air enters the lungs, the blood absorbs some of its 
oxygen. Air, therefore, which has been breathed one or more 
times, has lost much of its oxygen, and has become heavily 
charged with foul gases from the blood. It is no longer fit to 
be breathed. 



Lesson IV. 



HOW WE BREATHE. 



(a) Respiration Defined. — 1. Respiration, or 
breathing, consists of two movements, — inspiration 
and expiration. 

2. Inspiration is the drawing of air into the lungs. 

3. Expiration is the expelling, or forcing out, of 
the air from the lungs. 

(h) Inspiration Described. — 1. In taking a full 
breath, we throw the chest forward, the shoulders 
back, and straighten the backbone. This is done in 
order to give free play to the muscles that move the 
breathing apparatus. 

2. The diaphragm (a broad muscular partition 
between the chest and the abdomen) lowers itself so 



The Breathing Apparatus. Ill 

as to press the walls of the lower part of the chest 
outward, and increase the size of the cavity. 

3. On being relieved from all pressure, the elastic 
lungs expand, and air rushes in through the nostrils, 
trachea, and bronchial tubes, and fills the vacant air- 
cells of the lungs. 

(c) Expiration Described. — 1. The diaphragm is 
pushed upward against the lungs by the contraction 
of the muscles of the abdomen, the walls of the 
chest contract, and the ribs are pulled downward by 
their muscles. 

2. The size of the chest is greatly diminished by 
these movements, and the air is pressed out of the 
lungs through the air-tubes, bronchi, larynx, and 
nostrils. 

(d) Frequency of Respiration. — 1. In an adult 
in a condition of repose, respiration takes place about 
eighteen times a minute. In the infant it is more 
frequent. Respiration becomes very active under 
the influence of bodily exercise or under excitement 
of the mind. But, on the other hand, when the 
attention becomes fixed in laborious mental effort, 
the breath is held, so that it soon becomes necessary 
to take long, deep inspirations to " make up " (com- 
pensate) for the small supply furnished the lungs by 
the preceding inspirations. This insufficient respira- 
tion should be guarded against by students when 
long employed in mental effort, as their constitutions 
suffer greatly from a lack of supply of air in the 
lungs. 



112 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. As the air is less dense in elevated regions than 
in the lower regions, on the seacoast for example, 
it is necessary to breathe oftener upon high moun- 
tains in order to supply the lungs with the required 
amount of oxygen. But this increase of respiration 
is noticeable only when the height is considerable, 
and the distance is passed over rapidly. 



Lesson V. 

THE AIR WE BREATHE. 

(a) Pure Air Needed. — - 1. Whether the blood 
shall carry the nourishing and life-giving oxygen to 
every part of the body, or whether it shall return 
to the heart from the lungs without being relieved of 
carbonic acid, depends entirely on the purity of the 
air we breathe. 

2. Pure air makes pure blood; and pure, rich 
blood gives nourishment to all the organs ; but im- 
pure air — air that contains but little oxygen, and 
is laden with carbonic gas and other impurities — 
poisons the blood with carbonic gas, and starves it 
for want of oxygen. 

(b) The Air of Close Hooms Poisonous. — 1. In 
a short time the air of a close room becomes filled 
with carbonic acid and other matter thrown out of 



The Breathing Apparatus. 113 

the body through the lungs and skin, while the oxy- 
gen has all been consumed. In this condition it is 
poisonous, and unfit to be breathed. If a room were 
perfectly air-tight, or even nearly so, the air would 
become so poisonous as to cause death. 

2. Great care should be taken to admit a full 
supply of fresh air into all apartments of our houses, 
particularly into our sleeping-rooms. A simple way to 
do this, and at the same time prevent " taking cold " 
from a draught, is to insert a board six or eight 
inches wide, and long enough to reach entirely 
across the window, and fill the space under the raised 
lower sash. Currents of air will then enter only 
between the upper and the lower sashes, and will be 
projected upward, losing their force ere they reach 
the person of any one in the room. 

(c) Poisonous Air from Drain-Pipes. — 1. If 
the drain-pipes leading from houses to cesspools and 
sewers are not constructed properly, poisonous car- 
bonic acid and other foul gas will be carried back 
through them, poisoning the air of apartments, and 
causing disease and death. 

(d) Malaria. — 1. Malaria (bad air), as its name 
indicates, is a disease caused by breathing air that is 
filled with poisonous particles that arise from drain- 
pipes, decaying vegetable matter, marshy land, etc. 
It is supposed that little atoms, called spores, float in 
the air from these sources, and that they are absorbed 
into the blood through the lungs, and pores of the 
skin. These spores irritate and poison the blood, and 



114 Lessons on the Human Body. 

create the disorder from which so many people in 
certain sections of our own country, and in warm 
countries, suffer. 

(e) Foul Air Causes General Disorder. — 1. What- 
ever deprives the lungs of the supply of oxygen 
required for the purification of the blood, or prevents 
them from casting out carbonic acid gas, sows the 
seeds of disease. It follows, then, that if the lungs 
are not only hindered in their work by improper 
clothing, but compelled to breathe poisonous air, 
disease will attack the weakest organs of the body 
first, and extend from these to others, finally ending 
in death. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART IV. 
THE BREATHING APPARATUS. 



!Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. Name the organs of breathing. What may be considered 

as the outer openings of the breathing apparatus ? 

(b) — 1. Give the position of the larynx. Where may the front of 

the larynx be felt ? What is it commonly called ? 

(c) — 1. What is the larynx ? 

2. What kind of a piece of mechanism is it? What does 

it resemble, and of what is it composed? What are 
the vocal cords ? 

3. Into what, and how, does the larynx open ? What is the 

glottis ? The epiglottis ? 

(d) — 1 . What is the usual condition of the glottis ? What is the 

work of the epiglottis ? 

2. Of what is the larynx the organ ? Describe the position 

of the vocal cords. What is their position when not in 
use? 

3. How do the muscles of the larynx act when we wish to 

produce voice ? How is voice then produced ? 

4. How is voice modified and varied by the glottis ? 

Rem. — What is said of the larynx in infancy in the two sexes? 
How long does it remain nearly stationary in size ? 
When does it increase to nearly double its former size ? 
What change of voice does this increase cause ? When 

117 



118 Lessons on the Human Body. 

is the larynx fully developed ? What is the extent of 
increase of the larynx of girls ? How does the larynx 
of woman compare with that of man ? For what do 
these differences in size account ? What usually causes 
the voice to be high or low ? What is the effect of a 
"cold" on the tones of voice? What occurs if we 
attempt to laugh, talk, or breathe while swallowing 
food or drink? What endeavor does the breathing 
apparatus make in such instances ? What is such an 
effort called ? 



Lesson II, 

(a) — 1« Where is the trachea, or windpipe, situated ? 

2. Where may its skeleton be felt ? 

(b) — 1. Of what is the trachea composed? Of what use are the 

rings of cartilage ? 

2. Describe the 'lower end of the trachea. What are these 

branches called, and to what do they lead ? 

3. Describe the branches of the trachea after entering the 

lungs. In what do the tiny branches end ? How large 
are the air-cells of the lungs ? 

4. With what are the air-tubes lined ? 

(c) — 1. What is the office or work of the trachea and its branches ? 

What occurs to the air after it enters the air-cells of the 
lungs ? 
Bern. — What is said of the nature of the lining of the air-tubes ? 
Can we breathe undiluted carbonic acid gas ? What is 
remarked of the action of the epiglottis when this ga9 
attempts to enter the air-passages ? Of what are most 
of our colds and coughs the results ? 



Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. Where are the lungs located ? How is the heart situated 

in regard to the lungs ? 

(b) — 1. What is the nature of the material of the lungs? Of 

what are they mainly composed? 
2, Of what shape are the lungs ? On what do they rest ? 



The Breathing Apparatus. 119 

3. "What is the color of the lungs ? By what are they en- 

closed ? To what are the layers of the pleura attached ? 
Of what use is the pleura ? What does it give out ? 

4. Are the lungs muscular ? Do they possess the power to 

act for themselves in breathing ? 
(c) — 1. "What is the office or work of the lungs ? 

2. "What partition separates the air from the blood in the 
lungs ? 

3* How does the oxygen of the air reach the blood ? "What 
change does it make in the impure blood ? What does 
. the air in the lungs receive from the blood ? What 
becomes of these impurities? 

4. With what does the blood in the lungs become charged ? 
Whither is the blood sent from the lungs ? 
Rem. — Of what is common air mainly composed ? In what pro- 
portions of each ? What is said of the nature of oxy- 
gen, and into the composition of what does it enter ? 
With what does the air in the lungs part ? What is the 
condition of air that has been breathed one or more 
times ? Should it be breathed in this condition ? 



Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1. Of how many and what acts does respiration consist ? 

2. What is inspiration ? 
3* What is expiration ? 

(b) — 1. Describe the action of the spine and shoulders when we 

take in a full breath. Why do they perform these 
actions ? 

2. Describe the action of the diaphragm during inspiration. 

What effect has this action ? 

3. Describe the action of the lungs in inspiration. What 

does the air then do ? 

(c) — 1. Describe the action of the muscular diaphragm in expira- 

tion. Of the walls of the chest, and of the ribs. 
2. What is said of the size of the chest in expiration ? What 
effect have these actions upon the air in the lungs ? 

(d) — 1. How often does an adult in repose breathe during a 

minute ? How often does an infant breathe ? What 
effect do bodily exercise and excitement of the mind 



120 Lessons on the Human Body. 

have on respiration? What effect does fixed and la- 
borious mental effort have on respiration? Why do 
we take long, deep breaths after the breath has been 
held in that way ? What habit of respiration should 
students guard against ? Why ? Why is it necessary 
to breathe oftener in elevated regions than in lower 
regions? When is this increase of respiration notice- 
able? 



Lesson V. 

(a) — 1. Upon what does the purity or impurity of the blood 
greatly depend ? 
2. What does pure air make ? What is impure air, and what 
effects has it on the blood ? 
(b) — 1. With what does the air of close rooms become filled? 
What is said of such air? 
2. What care should be taken of the air of all apartments ? 
What is an easy way to admit fresh air without 
draughts ? 

(c) — !• What is said of poorly constructed drain-pipes ? 

(d) — 1. What does the word " malaria " mean ? What causes the 

disease called by this name ? State what is said of 
spores. What effect have they when absorbed into the 
blood? 

(e) — What is the effect of depriving the lungs of a proper 

supply of oxygen ? If the lungs are deprived of the 
necessary oxygen, what organs will disease attack 
first? Which next? 



PART V. 

THE MUSCLES. 



1 Each fibre ranged with such amazing skill 
That every muscle may attend thy will, 
How every tendon acts upon its bone, 
And how the nerves receive their nicer tone." 



THE MUSCLES. 



Lesson I. 

MUSCLES. 



(a) Wliat Muscles are. — 1. The muscles are the 
instruments of motion. While the body owes its gen- 
eral form to the bones, its power of motion and its 
beautiful proportions are given by the muscles. 

2. The muscles and tendons are to the human body 
what the ropes and sails are to the masts and spars 
of a ship. As a ship without sails and ropes would 
be a very unmanageable thing, so the body without 
muscles and tendons would have no power to -move, 
or direct its position. 

3. In the bones of the body we find the columns, 
levers, and pulleys of a complex machine; and in 
the muscles and tendons we have the cords, belts, or 
springs, which move the bony levers and pulleys. 

4t. The muscles of an animal body are the lean 
meat. Lean beef, the deep-red flesh of the cow or ox, 
is the muscular part of the animal's body. There are 
more than five hundred muscles in the human body. 

123 



124 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(b) Position. — 1. The muscles are situated in all 
parts of the body. The great mass of flesh covering 
the skeleton is mainly composed of them, while the 
organs situated in the cavities of the body are either 
muscles, or have muscles connected with them. 
Among the muscles situated within the framework 
are the heart, the diaphragm, the muscular coat of 
the stomach, and the tongue. 

(c) Construction. — \. The muscles are composed 
of fine fibres or strings held together by a connect- 
ing network of tissue, and bound up in smooth, 
silky casings of thin membrane. The microscope 
enables us to see that each of these fibres or strings 
is formed of still finer ones. 1 

2. The muscles are laid one over the other, sepa- 
rated by the smooth casings of membrane, and by 
layers of fat that enable them to move without inter- 
fering with each other. These layers of fat give a 
plumpness of form which the body would not other- 
wise have. 

3. In shape and in length, the muscles vary greatly. 
Some are round; others flat, square, or triangular. 
Some of the muscles of the larynx are only about 
one-eighth of an inch in length, while the sartorius, 
or " tailor's muscle," by which the legs are crossed, 
is nearly three feet in length. 

4. Muscles are large and thick in the middle, but 



1 The muscular fibres are readily separated in a piece of boiled 
meat. 



The Muscles. 



125 



small at the ends. The middle part is called the 
body, or swell, and it possesses the power of contrac- 
tion. The extremity of the muscle attached to the 
bone which is moved is called the insertion, or free 
end of the muscle : the extremity towards which it 
draws in contraction is called the origin, or fixed end 
of the muscle. Generally the origin of a muscle is 
nearest the trunk. 

Explanation of 
Fig. 26. 

In this figure the 
biceps muscle is 
shown at C, and the 
two tendons which 
attach it to the 
shoulder are seen 
at G-, the point of 
origin. 

The attachment of 
the muscle to the 
radius is shown at 
A, the point of in- 
sertion, i 

The triceps muscle is represented at F, and the tendon by which it is attached 
to the radius is shown at E. These two muscles are antagonistic muscles. 




Fig. 26. 



The Bones or the Upper Extremity and the 
Biceps and Triceps Muscles. 



5. At the ends, the threads or fibres of the muscle 
change into strong, tough tendons, of a bluish-white 
color, which are firmly fastened to the bones. The 
tendons have no power of contraction, and are 
merely the ropes, as it were, by which the body of 
the muscle is fastened to the bone, or other part, 
which is moved by the contraction. 

6. The muscles vary in color. The weaker ones 
are usually of a pale rose-color, while the larger and 



126 Lessons on the Human Body. 

stronger ones are deep red. The color of the muscles 
deepens when they are exercised. 

7. At least one artery enters each muscle, and 
supplies it with blood for its nutrition. A nerve 
also penetrates each muscle, and connects it with 
that great central office of the nerves, the brain, so 
that it may be subject to the will. 



Lesson II. 

WORK OF THE MUSCLES. 

1. All movements of the different parts of the 
body are caused by the contraction of muscles. 

2. The cells which compose the muscles are 
peculiarly elastic, and have the power to widen out, 

♦making each fibre of the muscle shorter and thicker. 
This power of these cells is the source of the con- 
traction of the muscles which produces all bodily 
movements. The contracting muscle shortens and 
thickens, and pulls the movable part to which it is 
attached with it. A good illustration of this action 
is found in the work of the muscles that bend the 
arm. (See Fig. 26^) The biceps muscle contracts, 
and pulls the bones of the lower arm upward, to- 
ward the shoulder : the triceps contracts, and pulls 
the bones of the lower arm back again, thus straight- 
ening the arm. If both of these muscles contract 



The Muscles. 



127 



at the same instant, there can be no movement of 
the elbow-joint, and thus we see the antagonistic 
nature of these two muscles. 

3. More than two hundred muscles are arranged 
in pairs, one to draw a part in one direction, and the 




Explanation of Fig. 27. 1 

a, the occipito-frontalis, 
the muscle that raises the 
eyebrows and skin of the 
forehead. 

c, the orbiculaHs palpe- 
barum, to shut the eye. 

n, the levator palpebral 
superioris, to open the eye 
by raising the upper lid. 

p, the corrugator super- 
cilii, to wrinkle the eye- 
brows. 

0, the compressor nasi, 
to compress the wings of 
the nose. 

d, the levator labii supe- 
rioris, to pull the upper lip 
directly upward. 

e, the zygomaticus minor, 
to raise the corner of the 
mouth outward. 

/, the zygomaticus major, 
to swell the cheek, and raise 
the corner of the mouth. 

?', the orbicularis oris, to shut the mouth by contracting the lips. 

k, the depressor anguli oris, to draw down the corner of the mouth. 

1, the levator anguli oris, to raise the corner of the mouth. 

m, the depressor labii inferioris, to draw the under lip downward and out- 
ward. 
h, the masseter, to raise the lower jaw. 



Fig. 27. 



1 Each muscle has a name, which has been given to it because 
of its size, shape, or the work which it performs. The names are 
here given to satisfy curiosity, rather than for memorization. 



128 Lessons on the Human Body. 

other to restore it to its former position, or to hold 
it motionless at any required point in the range of 
its motion. These pairs are called antagonists. 

4o All muscles do not move bones, and bend joints ; 
but some have quite different work to perform. The 
heart, which is a compound muscle, exerts its con- 
tractile powers in forcing the blood through the 
arteries. The stomach and other muscles of the 
digestive organs exert their force in mixing, churn- 
ing, and moving the food in preparing it for the 
nourishment of the body ; and the muscles of the eye 
move that organ. 

5. In the human face, all the various expressions 
that indicate the emotions of the mind — joy, sorrow, 
hatred, affection, pleasure, and pain — are caused by 
the contraction and swelling of the muscles which 
produce the lights and shadows of the countenance. 
Reference to Fig. 27 will assist in forming an idea 
of some of the principal muscles of the face, and of 
their work. 



Lesson III. 

CLASSES OF MUSCLES. 

1. The muscles are divided into two great 
classes ; viz., voluntary and involuntary. 

(a) Voluntary Muscles. — 1. The voluntary mus- 
cles are those that are under the control of the will. 
They move, or cease to move, when the mind wills it. 



The Muscles. 129 

The muscles of the fingers, limbs, trunk, and many 
others, belong to this class. 

(b) Involuntary Muscles. — 1. The involuntary 
muscles are those that act independently, and are 
not under the control of the will. The muscles of 
the stomach, heart, and those'that move in sneezing, 
coughing, and shivering as from a chill, are among 
the muscles of this kind. 

2. The movements of certain muscles appear to 
be involuntary, but are not really so. The sudden 
winking of the eye when any object threatens it 
may be considered voluntary ; for, if the attention is 
attracted, the will can control the movement. 

(c) Flexors and Extensors* — \, The muscles that 
bend a joint, or move any part, are called flexors: 
those that restore the parts to their former position 
are called extensors. Every joint in the body is pro- 
vided with at least one pair of these muscles. At 
the elbow-joint (Fig. 26) the biceps muscle contracts, 
and bends the joint, and a contraction of the triceps 
muscle straightens it again. 

2. Other muscles of these kinds produce a twist- 
ing or rolling motion of a limb, as in the fore-arm 
when the palm of the hand is turned upward or 
downward. 

3. These flexors and extensors are attached very 
obliquely to the bones, and do not exercise as much 
power as they would if placed more nearly at right 
angles. Such an arrangement would interfere with 
convenience and beauty of form, and freedom of 



130 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



movement. The limbs would be unwieldy and 
nearly useless. 



\w 



Explanation of Fig. 28. 

/, the muscle that straight- 
ens the fingers. 

h, the muscle that straight- 
ens the little finger. 

i, the muscle that assists 
in straightening the wrist. 

I, the muscle that assists 
in extending the fore-arm. 

d, the muscle to extend 
the second bone of the 
thumb outward. 

e, the muscle to extend 
the fore-finger. 

k, the muscle to draw the 
little finger outward. 

m, the muscle to roll or 
turn the fore-arm, and turn 
the hand. 

g, the ligament which 
binds down the muscles at 
the wrist. 



Explanation of Fig. 29. 

a, the muscle to turn the 
hand inward. 

b, the muscle to bend the 
wrist. 

c, d, the muscles to bend 
the hand. 

e, the muscle to assist in 
bending the hand. 

g, the muscle to bend the 
thumb. 



Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



The Muscles. 131 

4. Strong bands of ligament bind down the mus- 
cles, keep them in place, and add to their strength. 
The muscles at the wrist and ankle are thus firmly 
held in place, and prevented from flying from the 
bones when strongly contracted. Figs. 28 and 29 
present front and back views of the fore-arm, in 
which the long flexor and extensor muscles are 
represented. 




Fig. 30. 
Explanation op Fig. 30. 
S, the ligament that binds down the muscle to the bone of the ankle. 
B, a muscle which assists in extending the toes. 

1, tendons of the muscles that move the toes. 

2, nerves of the toes, pulled upward. 

3, at the back of the ankle, the tendon of Achilles, which extends from the 
muscle of the calf to the back of the heel. This is the strongest tendon of the 
body : it raises the heel. 



132 Lessons on the Human Body. 

5. In the fore-arm, between the elbow and the 
ends of the fingers, there are about fifty muscles. In 
the fingers there are numbers of short, delicate ones, 
capable of very quick movement : these have been 
called " fiddler's muscles." In the figures of the 
arm may be seen the tendons that proceed from the 
muscles to the bones of the fingers. The arrange- 
ment of the muscles of the foot is similar to that of 
the hand. 



Lesson IV. 

THE SOURCE OF MOTION. — EXERCISE. 

(a) Why Muscles Contract. — 1. The muscles re- 
ceive their power from the brain and nerves. 

2. Each muscle is penetrated by a nerve which 
connects it with the brain, or spinal marrow. This 
nerve branches out, and sends tiny threads into the 
fibres of the muscle, and in this respect each fibre 
is separate from every other. 

3. When the mind wills to move a muscle, the 
brain sends out a mysterious agent through the nerves 
to the cells of each fibre of that muscle, and it con- 
tracts. This is all that is known of that strange 
stimulus by which bodily movement is directed. 

4. If a nerve be cut anywhere between the spinal 
cord and the muscle to which it belongs, the muscle 
instantly loses its power of motion. This clearly 



The Muscles. 133 

proves that the nerves convey to the muscles a 
power which they have not within themselves. 

(b) Exercise of the Muscles. — 1. It is a general 
law of the body, that exercise is necessary to the 
health of all its parts. Tie up a blood-vessel, and 
it becomes a, withered, useless thing. The bones 
become weak, and dwindle away, when deprived of 
exercise ; and so it is with the muscles. Lack of 
proper exercise causes softness, weakness, and in- 
ability to perform the work for which they are de- 
signed. This is not only true of the muscles that 
bend the joints, and move the limbs, but also applies 
to those employed in breathing, and to the vocal 
muscles. 

2. Care must be taken that exercise be not too 
severe, nor continued so long as to produce exhaus- 
tion : muscle is weakened, rather than strengthened, 
by undue exertion. 

(c) Exercise Aids the Circulation. — 1. When a 
muscle contracts, some of the veins are compressed, 
so that the blood cannot flow freely onward, and 
the valves of the veins forbid a backward flow. The 
arteries continue to force the blood along, and the 
veins become swollen. As soon as the contraction 
of the muscle ceases, the blood rushes onward with 
greatly increased speed. 

2. Now, when a number of muscles are employed 
in strong, quick action, many veins are affected in 
this way, and the whole circulation is quickened. 
The heart must work faster to send the blood to the 



134 Lessons on the Human Body. 

lungs, and the lungs must work quicker to supply 
the oxygen required by the greater quantity of blood 
sent to them. The purified blood is carried back to 
the heart with greater speed, and the heart again 
forces it rapidly out through the arteries and capil- 
laries to perform its mission. 

(d) Exercise Aids Appetite and Digestion* — 1. 
When the blood reaches the capillaries, the quick- 
ened flow causes them to do their work faster, and 
the worn-out matter is removed more quickly. The 
organs call for new material, and the stomach de- 
mands more food to supply new blood to the system. 
Thus it will be seen that muscular exercise gives 
vigor to every part of the body. 

(e) Hints about Exercise. — 1. Exercise should be 
taken in pure air; it calls for a full supply of oxygen 
to satisfy the increased demand. 

2. Exercise should not be taken just before nor soon 
after severe mental labor, nor immediately after a hearty 
meal. In this latter instance the stomach requires 
the blood which would thus be called away from it, 
and delay its work. 

3. Tight clothing interferes with the action of the 
diaphragm and other muscles used in breathing ; and 
tight shoes interfere with the free movement of the 
muscles of the feet and legs, causing ungraceful and 
constrained action of these members 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTION'S. 



PART V. 
THE MUSCLES. 



^Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. "What are the muscles ? What gives the body its power 

and beauty of form ? 

2. To what may the muscles and tendons be compared? 

What comparison of the movements of a ship is made 
with those of the human body ? 

3. To what parts of a machine are the bones similar in their 

uses ? To what are the muscles and tendons equiva- 
lent? 

4. What part of the flesh is muscle? How many muscles 

are there in the human body ? 

(b) — 1, Where are the muscles situated? Of what is the great 

mass of flesh composed? Mention certain muscles 
that lie within the cavities. 

(c) — 1. Of what are the muscles composed? How held together, 

and by what incased ? 
2. How are the muscles laid ? What do the layers of fat 

give to the body ? 
3* What is said of the shape and length of the muscles? 

Mention the shapes, and state the sizes of certain 

muscles. 

137 



138 Lessons on the Human Body. 

4. In what part is a muscle thick ? Thin ? What is the 

middle part called ? Give the names applied to the 
ends of a muscle. Where generally is the origin of a 
muscle ? 

5. Describe the structure of the ends of a muscle. What 

is the nature of the tendons ? What is the use of the 
tendons ? 

6. What is the color of the muscles ? What effect has 

exercise on the color? 

7. State how the muscles are supplied with blood-vessels 

and nerves. 



Lesson II. 

1. How are all movements of the body produced ? 

2. What is the nature and what the power of the cells of the 

muscles? Of what is this property of the cells a 
source ? Describe the action of a muscle in producing 
movement of a part of the body. In what is a good 
illustration of this action found? Describe the work 
of the muscles that bend the arm. If both of these 
muscles contract at the same time, what is the result ? 

3. What is said of pairs of muscles ? Describe their work. 

What are such muscles named ? 

4. Do all muscles move bones and bend joints ? State what 

you know of muscles that have a different office. 

5. How are emotions of the mind expressed in the counte- 

nance? Note,. What is said of the names applied to 
muscles ? 



Lesson III. 

1. Into what general classes are all muscles divided ? 

(a) — 1. What are voluntary muscles ? Mention some. 

(b) — 1. What are involuntary muscles ? Mention some. 

2. What is said of some muscles that appear to be involun- 

tary ? 

(c) — 1. What are flexors ? Extensors ? With what is every joint 

provided ? 
2. What kind of motion do some of these muscles produce ? 



The Muscles. 139 

3. How are the flexors and extensors attached to the bones ? 

What effect on the power has this position of the 
muscles? "What would be the effect if they were 
placed more nearly at a right angle ? 

4. What bind down the muscles? What is said of the 

muscles of the wrist and ankle ? 

5. About how many muscles are in the fore-arm ? What is 

the nature of the muscles of the fingers, and of what 
are they capable? What is said of the arrangement 
of the muscles of the foot ? 



L<esson IV. 

(a) — 1. From what first source do the muscles receive their 

power ? 

2. By what is each muscle penetrated ? Describe the 

branching of the nerve. 

3. How does the mind move a muscle ? 

4. What is the effect of severing a nerve ? What does this 

prove ? 

(b) — 1. What is a general law in regard to exercise? What is 

said of tying up a blood-vessel ? What effect has lack 
of exercise on the bones and muscles ? Is this true of 
all muscles ? 

(c) — 1. What effect on the veins has the contraction of a muscle ? 

What happens when the contraction ceases ? 
2. When many muscles contract, what is the effect upon the 
circulation ? What of the action of the heart ? What 
of the speed of the blood ? 

(d) — 1. How are the capillaries affected by increase of circula- 
tion ? The organs of the body ? The stomach ? What 
does all this show ? 

(e) — 1. Where should exercise be taken ? Why ? 

2. What is said of exercise after mental labor ? Why should 

we not engage in severe exercise after a hearty meal ? 

3. How does tight clothing interfere ? Tight shoes ? 



PART VI. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 



" These outguards of the mind are sent abroad, 
And still patrolling beat the neighboring road, 
Or to the parts remote obedient fly, 
Keep posts advanced, and on the frontier lie." 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 



Lesson I. 



THE BRAIN. 



(a) Tosition. — l. The brain, the principal organ 
of intelligence, is situated in the head, and is sur- 
rounded and protected by the bones of the skull. 




Fig. 31. 
Explanation of Fig. 31. 

This figure represents the 6kull as divided in the middle, from front to hack, 
down to the neck. 

143 



144 Lessons on the Human Body. 

2. The brain is divided into two parts. That 
which occupies the cavity of the skull above the 
level of the ears is called the cerebrum, or great brain : 
the part which fills the cavity below the level of the 
ears, at the back of the head, is called the cerebellum, 
or little brain. A membrane, tightly stretched, sepa- 
rates the two parts, and relieves the lower brain from 
the weight and pressure of the upper one. 

(b) Construction. — 1. "When the bones qxe re- 
moved, a thick, shining membrane is seen. This is 
the dura mater, or firm coat of the brain, and its 
office is to assist in keeping the brain together, and 
to protect it. Beneath the outer coat lies the arach- 
noides, or transparent coat, which is a very delicate, 
transparent membrane. It so much resembles a 
spider's web, that it receives its name from that fact, 
— arachnoides, " the spider's web." This membrane 
lies over the surface of the brain, but does not 
closely follow its depressions. The third and inner 
coat is called the pia mater, or soft coat. It is a thin 
network of blood-vessels, which follows the fissures, 
and winds into the substance, of the brain. 

2. The substance of the brain consists of two 
kinds of matter ; viz., gray and white. The gray 
matter forms the outside of the brain, and the white 
the inner portions. 1 So extremely soft is the sub- 
stance of the brain, that it would fall apart from its 

1 The gray is supposed to "be the portion thafc originates a fluid 
which imparts power of motion ; and the white is supposed to con- 
duct the fluid to all parts of the body. 



The Brain and Nerves. 145 

own weight if it were not surrounded by its mem- 
branes. 

3. The outer surface of the brain is not smooth 
and regular, but consists of worm-like ridges inter- 
spersed with hollows : in other words, it is furrowed. 

(c) Work of the Brain. — 1. The brain is the seat 
of thought, of intelligence, of sensation, and of mo- 
tion. The knowledge which has been obtained con- 
cerning the special uses and work of the different 
parts of the brain is very limited, and mainly founded 
on supposition. 1 

2. It is believed that the cerebrum is the chief 
organ of the mind, and that it presides over the 
intellectual processes. It is there that we think, 
reason, and will. 

3. Various kinds of work have been attributed to 
the cerebellum ; but one kind only has been generally 
admitted. Experiments seem to prove, that, if the 
cerebellum be injured or removed, a confusion of 
movement of the muscles is caused, like that pro- 
duced by alcoholic intoxication. It is believed, 
therefore, that this organ is the regulator of muscu- 
lar motion, 

(d) Peculiarities of the Brain. — 1. The brain 
suffers no pain from wounds. A portion of it may be 
cut off without creating pain. Portions of the brain 
sometimes escape through fractures of the skull, and 

1 Most of the theories in regard to the functions of the brain are 
disputed and uncertain, and physiology is very reserved in regard 
to them. 



146 Lessons on the Human Body. 

still the injured person recovers without suffering 
injury to his powers of mind. 

2. If the upper part of the cerebrum of an animal 
be removed, he becomes blind and apparently stupe- 
fied, but may be roused, and then can walk steadily 
and naturally. 

3. The medulla oblongata (that portion of the brain 
next to the spinal cord) is probably the most delicate 
and sensitive portion of the body. The slightest 
injury, the prick of a needle, to this organ causes 
instant death. 



Lesson II. 

THE tfERVES. 

(a) Location of the Nerves. — 1. Nerves spring 
from the brain and spinal cord, and extend to every 
part of the body. 

2. Certain nerves start from the base of the brain, 
within the skull, and extend to the eye, ear, tongue, 
nose, throat, stomach, heart, etc. These are named 
cranial nerves, because they begin in the cranium or 
skull. 

3. The spinal cord, which is an extension of the 
substance of the brain, extends downward through 
the tube or canal of the backbone. Between the 
points of the bones of the spine, the spinal cord 



The Brain and Nerves. 147 

sends out branches, which are named spinal nerves. 
These extend to the arms, the chest, the abdomen, 
the legs, etc., and have various names. 

4. The nerves branch out from the spinal cord 
precisely like the limbs and smaller branches of a 
tree. Fig. 32 gives a view of the brain, spinal cord, 
and starting-points of the nerves. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The nerves are branches 
and twigs of the brain. They consist of the same 
substance as the brain, and, like it, are surrounded 
and protected by sheaths of membrane. 

2. The nerves branch off in pairs from the brain 
and spinal marrow, through little openings in the 
bones. Twelve of these pairs spring directly from 
the brain, and thirty of them from the spinal cord, 
sending their branches and twigs to every muscle, 
blood-vessel, or other organ of the body. 

3. Nerves are of all sizes, from one-fourth of an 
inch in diameter to hair-like threads, so small as to 
be invisible to the unassisted eye. In length they 
differ as much as in thickness. The brain, spinal 
■cord, and nerves constitute the nervous system. 



148 Lessons on the Human Body. 




Fig. 32. 



The Brain and Nerves. 



149 



Explanation of Fig. 32. 



A, A, the cerebrum. 

B, B, the cerebellum. 

C, C, the union of the fibres of the 
cerebrum. 

D, D, the union of the fibres of the 
two sides of the cerebellum. 

E, E, E, the spinal cord. 
1,1, the cranial nerves. 

2, 2, the branches of the spinal 
nerves that extend to the neck and 
orsrans of the chesi. 



3, 3, the branches of the spinal 
nerves that extend to the arms and 
fingers. 

4, 4, 4, 4, the dorsal nerves that ex- 
tend to the walls of the chest, back, 
loins, and abdomen. 

5, S, the lumbar nerves that also 
extend to the chest and abdomen. 

6, 6, the sacral nerves that unite, 
and form the great sciatic nerve of 
the legs. 



Lesson III. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Work. — l. The nervous system has distinct offices 
to perform. While one portion (the brain) is en- 
gaged in thinking, and in receiving pleasant or pain- 
ful sensations, or in sending out its commands to the 
body, another portion (the nerves) is engaged in con- 
veying information and in carrying orders to the 
different organs. 

2. The nerves are divided into two classes ; viz., 
the sensory nerves, and the motor nerves. The sen- 
sory nerves are connected with the organs of taste, 
smell, hearing, sight, and touch. They carry impres- 
sions to the mind of the effects produced upon them 
in these organs. The motor nerves are connected 
with the muscles. When the brain wills that a 



150 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



muscle shall move, a message with power is sent to 
that muscle through its motor nerve, and it moves. 




Fig. 33. 



Explanation of Fig. 33. 



2, the optic nerve, nerve of sight, connected with the eyeballs. 
5, the motor oculi, used to move the eyes. 

4, the trochlearis, which rolls the eye downward. 

5, the tri-gemini, whose three branches extend to the upper part of the face, 
to the upper jaw and teeth, to the lower jaw and teeth (this nerve is affected 
in toothache) , to the tear-gland of the eye, and to the nose. 

0, the nerve of the tongue and of taste. 
P, a branch of the nerve of taste, going to the ear. 

Q, the nerve of the teeth of the under jaw, which finally comes out on the chin 
to supply the muscles of expression. 
7, the auditory nerve , beiDg the nerve of hearing. 



3. The nerves of sensation and of motion start 
from different portions of the spine, but become 
united in the same sheath soon after they leave it, 
and till they enter the muscles. Thus every muscle 
is moved by a nerve of motion, while beside it, in the 



The Brain and Nerves. 151 

same sheath, is the nerve of sensation. If the mind 
wills that a finger be placed on any thing, the motor 
nerve moves the muscles of the finger, and the sen- 
sory nerve instantly reports to the brain whether 
that thing is cold or hot, rough or smooth. So when 
we smell, taste, or see any thing, or hear a sound, the 
nerves of sensation tell the brain whether it is sweet 
or sour, red or white, loud or low, etc. 1 

4. The nervous system is like a great telegraphic 
system. The brain is the great central office which 
receives and sends messages, and the nerves are the 
wires through which the messages are sent back and 
forth. If a nerve or a wire be severed, communica- 
tion instantly ceases. 

Fig. 33 gives a general idea of the nerves of the 
face. 



Lesson IV. 

EXERCISE OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 

(a) Exercise Beneficial. — 1. The brain and nerves 
suffer from lack of exercise, just as the muscles do. 

2. Proper exercise of the nerves of motion re- 
lieves, or prevents, that distressing sensitiveness of 
the sensory nerves known as " nervousness." 



1 All nerves of the muscles have a tendency toward the surface 
of the body. 



152 Lessons on the Human Body. 

3. The strength and activity of the muscles de- 
pend greatly upon the impulse given them by the 
brain and nerves. If the mind be pleasantly em- 
ployed, the muscles will work long and actively 
without fatigue ; but, if the mind be gloomy or 
inactive, the muscles soon grow tired. 

(b) Harmful Eocercise. — l. If the nerves of sen- 
sation be much exercised while the nerves of motion 
be but little, the former will be weakened by too 
much work, and the latter by too little. 

2. Whenever the brain is over-exercised by hard 
study, or by excessive emotion or care, the blood 
rushes to it in increased quantities to replace the 
worn-out material : the veins and arteries become 
swollen, and a feeling of fulness or pain is caused. 
The over-exercised brain may in this way become 
diseased or paralyzed. In short, well-regulated exercise 
strengthens the faculties of the mind, while inactivity, 
or injudicious exercise, weakens them. 

(c) Equal Development. — 1. An equal develop- 
ment of all portions of the brain by a proper exer- 
cise of all the faculties of the mind and body is 
conducive to health and happiness. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART VI. 
THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 



Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. Where is the brain situated? How surrounded and pro- 

tected ? 
2. Into how many and what parts is the brain divided? 
How are the parts separated ? 

(b) — 1. What is first seen when the bones are removed? What 

is the name of this membrane, and what is its office? 
What lies next below the dura mater ? Describe the 
arachnoides. Just how is this coat placed? What is 
the name of the inner coat ? Describe it. 

2. Of what does the substance of the brain consist ? Where 

is the gray matter ? The white ? What is said of the 
softness of the substance of the brain ? 

3. What is the form of the outer surface of the brain ? 

(c) — 1. Of what is the brain the seat ? How much is known of 

its uses and work ? Note. What is said of most of the 
theories concerning its functions ? 

2. What is believed to be the office of the cerebrum ? 

3. What work has been attributed to the cerebellum ? What 

is generally admitted concerning its office ? 

155 



156 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(d) — 1 . What is said of the insensibility of the brain in regard to 
pain ? 

2. What effect has the removal of the upper part of the 

cerebrum of an animal ? 

3. What is said of the delicacy of the medulla oblongata ? 



Lesson IT. 

(a) — 1, From what do the nerves spring ? To what do they 

extend ? 

2. State what is said of the cranial nerves. 

3. What is the spinal cord ? Through what does it extend ? 

What does it send out? What are these branches 
called ? To w^hat do they extend ? 

4. In what manner do the nerves branch out from the sjrinal 

cord ? 

(b) — 1. What are nerves ? Of what do they consist ? How 

surrounded ? 

2. What of pairs of nerves ? How many pairs spring from 

the brain, and how many from the spinal cord ? 

3. What is said of the size of nerves ? What constitutes 

the nervous system ? 



Lesson III. 

State what offices the nervous system has to perform. 

What is the office of each part ? 
Into what classes are the nerves divided ? With what are 

the sensory nerves connected ? What is their work ? 

With what are the motor nerves connected, and how 

do they act ? 
From what portions of the spine do these classes of nerves 

start out ? What is their position soon after leaving the 

spinal cord ? With what is every muscle provided ? 

Describe the action of the motor nerve. Of the sensory 

nerve. Note. What tendency have the nerves of the 

muscles ? 
What is the nervous system like ? Explain why. What 

is the effect of severing a nerve or wire ? 



The Brain and Nerves. 157 



Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1. What effect has lack of exercise on the brain and nerves ? 

2. What does exercise of the motor nerves relieve ? 

3. Upon what do the strength and activity of the muscles 

greatly depend ? What is the effect of pleasant occu- 
pation of the mind ? Of gloominess ? 

(b) — 1. What is the effect of great exercise of the sensory nerves 

while the motor nerves have but little ? 
2. What takes place in the circulation when the brain is 
overworked, etc. ? What may this result in ? 

(c) — 1. What is said of an equal development of all portions of 

the brain ? 



PART VII. 



EYE, EAR, AND SKIN. 



" The beams of light had been in vain display'd, 
Had not the eye been fit for vision made. 



The watchful sentinels at ev'ry gate, 
At every passage to the senses, wait; 
Still travel to and fro the nervous way, 
And their impressions to the brain convey." 



EYE, EAR, AND SKIN. 



THE EYE. 
Lesson I. 

THE EYE. 



(a) Position. — 1. The eye, the organ of sight, is 
situated in the upper part of the front of the skull, 
in hollows of the bones. It is surrounded, and pro- 
tected from blows and accidents, by the bones of the 
socket in which it is placed. 

(b) Construction. — !. The eyeball is surrounded 
by three coats ; viz., the sclerotic or outer coat, the 
choroid or middle coat, and the retina or inmost 
coat. These coats lie one within another, like the 
layers of an onion, and hold the humors in globular 
shape. 

2. Nature of the coats. The sclerotic (that is, 
haroT) coat, like the dura mater of the brain, is 
thick, strong, and not sensitive. It has an opening 
in front, in which the cornea is placed. This coat 
gives great security to the delicate portions of the 

161 



162 



Lessons on the Human Body. 



eye, and affords attachment for the muscles. The 
choroid coat Qchoroides, fleecy) is very fleecy and 




Fig. 34. 



Explanation of Fig. 34. 



This figure represents a section of 
the eye. 

a, the upper eyelid, shut. 

b, the cornea. 

c, c, the cut edges of the iris. 

d, the pupil, or round hole in the 
centre of the iris. In the real eye this 
looks like a bright black dot. 

e, e, the cut edges of the sclerotic 
coat, the choroid coat, and the retina, 
or inmost coat. 

/, the crystalline lens* 
h, the optic nerve. 



i, the levator muscle, that raises the 
eyelid. 

k, the upper straight muscle of the 
eye. 

7i, n, a section of the blood-vessels 
and nerves, with a quantity of fat, 
surrounding the optic nerve. 

The small dark space at d is occu- 
pied by the aqueous humor in the 
front of the eye : the large dark space 
back of / is occupied by the vitreous 
humor. 



soft, and is composed of minute arteries and veins, 
which form a web about the eye. This accounts for 



Eye, Ear, and Skin. 163 

the dark-red color of this coat. The retina (that is, 
a net) resembles ground glass in color, and is so very 
delicate that it cannot bear its own weight. It is 
really an extension and expansion of the optic nerve. 
It receives the rays of light, and is the immediate 
seat of sight. 

3. The cornea. The cornea (cornu, a horn) covers 
the front of the eye and aqueous humor. In form 
and appearance it resembles a watch-crystal. . It is 
composed of thin, transparent plates, under the out- 
ermost of which are little sacks or glands, which give 
out an oily fluid that spreads over the surface, and 
gives this part of the eye great brilliancy. 1 When 
death approaches, this fluid collects in a dark cloud 
over the cornea. 

4. The iris. The iris (that is, the rainbow) is that 
portion of the middle coat of the eye which lies back 
of the cornea. The coloring-matter of the eye is 
spread over its inner surface, black, blue, or brown, 
as the case may be. In the iris is a circular opening, 
called the pupil of the eye. The iris has the power 
of expanding and contracting, and thus enlarges or 
diminishes the size of the pupil Qpupilla, a little 
puppet). 

5. The crystalline lens. This "magnifying glass" 
of the eye is found between the two humors, just 
back of the pupil. It resembles a circular glass 



1 These little glands can only be seen by the aid of a powerful 
microscope. 



164 Lessons on the Human Body. 

button, convex on both sides. The crystalline lens 
is held in place by a delicate, transparent envelope, 
which connects it with the coats. It focuses the rays 
of light. 

6. The humors. The aqueous humor lies directly 
back of the cornea, and fills the front chamber of 
the eye. It is a perfectly clear, water-like fluid 
(aqueous, like water). It sustains the cornea, and 
keeps it always at the same distance from the pupil 
of the eye. The vitreous humor (vitreous, glassy) 
occupies the back chamber of the eye. It consists 
of a substance like the uncooked "white" of an egg, 
which is transparent, and allows light to pass through 
it to the retina. 

7. The optic nerve. This nerve springs from the 
brain, passes through a bony canal, enters the back 
of the eye, and branches off through the globe. The 
small fibres of the nerve within the ball assume the 
form of a web, and constitute the retina. The optic 
nerve is about three-fourths of an inch long, and 
somewhat larger than a straw. 

8. Glands. The lachrymal gland (lachryma, a 
tear) is a small sack in the upper and outer socket 
of the eye, just above the ball. It prepares the tears, 
and constantly pours out enough of its contents,. by 
pressure of the lids and rolling of the eye, to moisten 
the surface of the eye, and prevent shrivelling. The 
tears finally find their way to the inner corner of 
the eye, and there enter little openings (lachrymal 
canals), from which they flow into a bony tube 



Eye, Ear, and Slcin. 



1G5 



(nasal canal'), and thence into the nose, whose inner 
surface they moisten. 



Explanation of Fig. 35. 

a, the lachrymal gland. 

b, b, the eyelids, widely open. 

c, c, the openings into the lachrymal 
ducts. 

d, d, the lachrymal ducts. 

g, g, h, the nasal sack- and duct. 




Fig. 35. 



Lesson II. 



WORK OF THE EYE, OR HOW WE SEE. 



1. As yet, no one has been able to explain pre- 
cisely how or why we see. We must await, from the 
progress of science, an explanation which physiology 
cannot now give. 

2. We know that light is reflected from objects ; 
that it enters the eye through the transparent cornea, 
passes through the aqueous humor, and enters the 
pupil ; that it passes through the pupil, and reaches 
the crystalline lens, where its rays are bent from a 



166 Lessons on the Human Body. 

direct course. It is believed, that, after the rays 
reach the retina, a picture of the object is formed 
upon it, and that the impression is conveyed by the 
optic nerve to the brain, where the impression is 
understood or seen, but how, we do not know. 

3. The iris expands and contracts independently 
of the will. When the quantity of light is too great, 
it contracts, diminishes the size of the hole in its 
centre, and shuts out some of the rays. When we 
leave a well-lighted room, and enter another where 
there is less light, the iris expands, and enlarges the 
pupil, in order to admit as many rays as possible. 
The pupil, therefore, is large or small according to 
the quantity of light necessary to make an impres- 
sion on the retina. 



Lesson III. 

CARE OF THE EYE. - ABUSE. — DISEASE. 

(a) Care of the Eye. — 1. Care should be taken, 
in working or reading by lamp or gas light, that the 
rays do not strike the eye directly. The light should 
fall upon the work or the book, and not upon the 
eye. Allow the light to fall from above the level 
of the eye, or over the shoulder, but do not face it. 

2. The nerves and muscles of the eye become 
fatigued by long-continued work, and may become 
permanently weakened by lack of rest. Care should 



Eye, Ear, and Skin. 167 

be taken to give them a few minutes' rest occasion- 
ally, when they are employed in reading fine print, 
sewing, etc. 

3. In work or study, the eye should not be 
brought unnecessarily near the object that claims its 
attention. 

4. Care should be taken not to employ the eye in 
deficient light habitually or frequently. This, prac- 
tice weakens the nerves of the eye. 

5. The eye demands cleanliness, and should be 
bathed to remove dust and impurities. 

(b) Abuse and Disease — - 1. Myopia (near sight- 
edness) is a very common disorder of the eye. 
Much of it is caused by bending the head over, and 
bringing the eye too near an object, as in reading, 
writing, sewing, etc. This habit causes the cornea 
and lens of the eye to adapt their form to suit the 
nearness of the object, and in time they become 
unable to adapt themselves to objects at a greater 
distance. 

2. In myopia the convex form of the lens or cor- 
nea is greater than in a natural condition. Myopia 
may be relieved by exercising the eye hi looking at 
distant objects, and by the use of double concave 
spectacles. As " prevention is better than cure," do 
not induce the disorder by abusing the eye. 

3. Presbyopia (far-sightedness) is caused by the 
flattening of the cornea or the crystalline lens. 
In this condition the eye cannot see near objects 
distinctly. Presbyopia does not usually make itself 



168 Lessons on the Human Body. 

felt till about the age of forty. Convex spectacles 
relieve far-sightedness. 

4. Few persons can see equally well with either 
eye. This defect may be inherited, but it is more 
frequently caused by one-sided use of the eyes. In 
this way one eye is compelled to adapt its organs to 
focus the rays of light from an object at a shorter 
distance, and the other eye from the same object at 
a greater distance, from the retina. One eye thus 
becomes myopic, and the other presbyopic. 

5. Cataract is a very frequent cause of blindness. 
In this disease of the eye, a thick, milky matter 
spreads itself over the cornea, and shuts out the rays 
of light. To remove a cataract, the surgeon uses a 
thin lancet, and cuts away a portion of the cornea. 
{See Fig. 36.) 




Fig. 36. 

Explanation of Fig. 36. 
This plan represents an eye surrounded by its natural appendages, with a 
knife passing through the anterior chamber. A dotted line indicates the lower 
edge of the flap, made by cutting off just one-half the cornea from its attach- 
ment with the sclerotica in order to allow the crystalline lens to escape when- 
ever the knife is withdrawn. 

6. The eye is affected by the general health of the 
body. Indigestion (dyspepsia) sometimes causes that 



Eye, Ear, and Skin. 169 

troublesome affection of the eye commonly called 
" flying flies." Little motes, flies, or clouds appear 
to flit before the eyes. When the digestive organs 
return to a healthy condition, the motes disappear. 



THE EAR. 
Lesson IV. 

THE EAR. 

(a) Location. — 1. The ear, the organ of hearing, 
consists of three parts ; viz., the external ear, the 
middle ear, and the internal ear. The external ear 
is on the outside of the head, and the middle and 
internal portions are in the bones, at the base of the 
skull. 

(b) Construction. — 1. The external ear is a thin, 
elastic cartilage, concave on one surface, and convex 
on the other. Its concave surface consists of grooves 
which finally form one large basin at the entrance 
of the opening into the head. From the opening, a 
passage or tube, called the auditory canal, extends to 
the middle ear, or drum. This canal is about an 
inch in length, and its inner end is closed by a thin, 
tightly drawn membrane, called the tympanic mem- 
brane. 

2. The middle ear (tympanum), or drum, is a 
small cavity which is separated from the auditory 



170 Lessons on the Human Body. 

canal by the tympanic membrane. The air within 
the drum communicates with the outside air by a 
passage called the Eustachian tube, which leads to the 
back of the mouth. Within the drum is a collection 
of four small bones, one joined to the extremity of 
another. From their shape, they have been named 
the mallet, the anvil, the stirrup, the round bone. 
Fig. 37 represents these bones in their natural size, 
excepting the last one, which is magnified. 



h 



Fig. 37. 



3. The internal ear, or labyrinth, consists of wind- 
ing passages in the solid bone. The auditory nerve 
is spread over these passages like a lining, and they 
are filled with a watery liquid. One of these wind- 
ing passages is named the cochlea, or snail-shell. 



Lesson V. 

WORK OF THE EAR. — CARE OF THE EAR. 

(a) How we hear. — 1. All things which produce 
sound vibrate in doing so, and communicate these 
quiverings to the air around them. The waves of 
air teach the external ear, which, like a funnel, re- 



Eye, Ear, and Shin. 



171 



ceives as many of them as it can, and causes them 
to flow along its channels into the auditory canal. 
This canal conducts the air-waves inward, to the 
membrane at its extremity. 




Fig. 38. 



Explanation of Fig. 38 

a, the external ear. 

b, the canals of the labyrinth. 

c, the auditory canal. 
e, the anvil-hone. 
/, the cochlea. 



g, the tympanic membrane. 
k, the middle ear (tympanum), in 
which the little bones are placed. 
i, the Eustachian tube. 



2. The air-waves beat upon the membrane of the 
drum, and cause it to vibrate just as the head of an 
ordinary drum does when it is struck. 1 The vibra- 
tions of the membrane cause the air within the drum 
(tympanum) to vibrate, and to set the little bones to 



1 The vibrating plates of the telephone imitate this membrane. 



172 Lessons on the Human Body. 

vibrating and swinging, at the same rate. All these 
shakes and vibrations produce similar ones in the 
watery liquid in the labyrinth, and these' produce 
some kind of an impression on the auditory nerve, 
which lines the inner ear. This nerve carries the 
sensation to the brain, which recognizes it, we know 
not how, as a sound. 

(b) Care of the Ear. — Disease. — 1. The auditory 
canal of the ear sometimes becomes partially closed, 
and the membrane of the drum covered, by ear-wax. 1 
This should be carefully removed, occasionally. It 
hardens, and impairs the hearing. 

2. Habitual picking of the ears with pins or other 
hard instruments should not be indulged in, as pain- 
ful affections of the ear may be caused by this prac- 
tice. These scraping instruments irritate the canal, 
and injure the head of the drum. 

3. Blows on the ears, loxing the ears, may rupture 
the membrane of the drum, and injure the hearing. 
The firing of cannon, and other loud sounds made 
close to the ear, may produce the same effect. 

4. Hearing is injured, or deafness caused, by dis- 
ease in other organs of the body. Scarlet-fever, 
small-pox, measles, etc., sometimes produce partial 
or total deafness. 



1 Ear-wax keeps the lining of the ear moist and pliable. It also 
protects it from insects, as it is certain death to them. 



Eye, Ear, and Skin. 173 

THE SKIN. 
Lesson VI. 

THE SKIN. 

(a) Location. — 1. The shin is the outer covering, 
or envelope, of the body. 

(h) Structure. — 1. The skin consists of two lay- 
ers ; viz., the outer, or scarf shin, and the inner, or 
true shin. 

2. The scarf shin consists of layers of flat, trans- 
parent scales, which are constantly being cast off 
and renewed. The dandruff of the head, and the 
white scurf that deposits itself on the clothing, are 
portions of the worn-out scarf skin. This part of 
the skin has neither nerves nor blood-vessels, and, 
when cut or punctured, suffers no pain. It is very 
thick over those parts of the body that are exposed 
to friction in working. This is especially true of 
the palm of the hand and sole of the foot. 

3. The true shin is a dense, thick membrane, con- 
sisting of strong fibres that are arranged like those 
of felt cloth. This part of the skin is filled with 
small blood-vessels, which give it a bright-pink color. 
Besides the blood-vessels, the true skin contains 
nerves, lymphatic-tubes, oil-tubes, and perspiration- 
tubes. 

4. The arteries, veins, and capillaries branch out 
all over the skin in a fine network. The nerves are 



174 Lessons on the Human Body. 

so numerous that a needle cannot pierce the skin 
without touching one of them. The lymphatics are 
little tubes which open outwardly, on the under sur- 
face of the scarf skin, while inwardly they connect 
with the veins. The oil-tubes are very abundant. 
Their mouths open upon the outer surface of the 
skin, and may be plainly seen at the edges of the 
eyelids. 

(c) Work of the Skln. — l. The skin, being tough 
and elastic, protects the tender flesh from injury. It 
also serves as an outlet for much of the worn-out or 
waste matter of the body, some of which is carbonic 
acid, some of an oily nature, and much of it perspira- 
tion. 

2. The perspiration-tubes gather up, from the cap- 
illaries, waste matter in the form of water, salts, 
acids, etc., and carry it to the surface of the skin. 
The little mouths of these tubes are so numerous, 
that more than three thousand of them have been 
counted in one square inch of the skin. The work 
of these tubes goes on constantly. When their 
action is much hastened, they pour out the perspira- 
tion in so large a quantity that it may be seen on the 
skin, and this is called sensible perspiration. When 
the tubes do not discharge so rapidly as to cause the 
fluid to be seen on the skin, it is called insensible 
perspiration. 

3. The oil-tubes carry a kind of oil from the blood, 
and pour it over the skin, to keep it moist and 
pliable. 



Eye, Ear, and Skin. 175 

4. The lymphatics absorb substances from the sur- 
face of the skin, and carry them into the veins. 



Lesson VII. 

CARE OF THE SKIN. — DISEASES. 

1. "The skin cannot be made whiter, permanently, 
by the use of preparations and cosmetics. These finally 
roughen and injure the skin. The lymphatics absorb 
portions of the substances spread upon the skin, and 
disease may be caused thereby. The bath, exercise, 
and pure air are the best beautifiers of the skin. 

2. Frequent bathing is required to remove impuri- 
ties from the surface of the skin. The perspiration- 
tubes are constantly depositing portions of worn-out 
matter upon the surface of the skin. If this waste 
matter be not removed by washing the shin of the 
entire body, the pores become clogged, and the work 
of these cannot be well performed. Soap should be 
used to dissolve the oily matter which accumulates. 
If these impurities be left upon the skin, they may be 
absorbed by the lymphatics, and carried back to poison 
the blood, and cause fever. 

3. Corns are a thickened, hardened portion of the 
skin, caused by long-continued pinching of the joints 
of the toes by tight shoes. 



176 Lessons on the Human Body. 

4. Shin-worms are merely hardened oil (sebaceous 
matter) which forms in the outer openings of the 
oil-tubes when these do not perform their work per- 
fectly. 

5. Ringworm is an eruption of the skin. 

6. Freckles are thick collections of the coloring- 
matter, frequently seen in the skin of persons of fair 
complexion. 

Note. — The coloring-matter of the skin is spread over the true 
skin. This gives the varieties of color seen in the blonde, the 
"brunette, and in the different races of'rnen. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART VII. 
EYE, EAR, AND SKIN. 



THE EYE. 

Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. Where is the eye located ? What protects it f 

(b) — 1. By how many coats is the eye surrounded ? Name them. 

How are these coats arranged? What office do they 
perform ? 

2. What is the nature of the sclerotic coat ? What opening 

has it ? What are the uses of the sclerotic coat ? 
What is the nature of the choroid coat? Of what is 
it composed ? What is the nature and appearance of 
the retina? What in reality is it? What work does 
it do? 

3. Where is the cornea placed ? What does it resemble ? 

Of what is it composed ? What fluid does it send out ? 
What is said of this fluid ? 

4. What is the iris ? What is said of the coloring-matter of 

the eye ? What opening has the iris ? What power 
of motion has the iris ? 

5. Where is the crystalline lens located? What does it 

resemble ? How held in place ? What work does 
it perform? 

6. Locate the aqueous humor. Describe it. What work does 

it perform? Locate the vitreous humor. Of what 
does it consist, and what is its use? 

179 



180 Lessons on the Human Body. 

7. From what does the optic nerve spring? Describe its 

progress. What form do its small fibres assume within 
the ball ? What is the size of the optic nerve ? 

8. What are the lachrymal glands ? What work do they 

perform ? Where do the tears finally go ? 



Lesson II. 

1. Can the act of seeing be precisely explained ? 

2. What do we know of light and objects ? How does light 

enter the eye ? Through what does it then pass ? After 
passing -through the pupil, where does it go? What 
occurs to the rays in the crystalline lens? What is 
believed to occur when the rays reach the retina? 
How does the picture reach the brain? 

3. What movements of the iris are mentioned? What oc- 

curs when the light is too great ? What does the iris 
do when we leave a light room, and enter a dark one ? 
What, then, is the size of the pupil? 



Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. What care of the eye should be taken in working or read- 

ing by lamp or gas light ? How should the light fall ? 

2. What effects have long-continued work upon the nerves 

and muscles of the eye ? What care should be taken 
to prevent fatigue ? 

3. What is said of bringing the eye unnecessarily near ob- 

jects ? 

4. What is said of deficient light ? 

5. What is said of the eye and cleanliness ? 

(b) — 1. What is myopia ? By what is it often caused ? How does 

this habit cause near-sightedness ? 

2. What is the form of the lens in myopia of the eye ? How 

may myopia be relieved ? What is better than cure ? 

3. What is presbyopia, and what causes it ? How is the sight 

affected ? When does presbyopia begin to be felt ? 
What relieves it? 



Eye, Ear, and Shin. 181 

4. Can all people see equally well with either eye? From 

what may this difficulty arise ? Explain. 

5. Describe cataract of the eye. How is cataract removed ? 

6. How does the health affect the eyesight ? Dyspepsia ? 



THE EAR. 

Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1. Of what parts does the ear consist ? Name them. Where 

are they situated ? 

(b) — 1. TV hat is the external ear? Describe its concave surface. 

What is the auditory canal ? Describe it. 

2. What is the tympanum or middle ear ? With what does 

the air within it communicate ? What is the Eustachian 
tube ? What is found within the drum ? How are these 
bones arranged, and what are they called ? 

3. Of what does the internal ear consist ? How is the auditory 

nerve disposed in these passages ? With what are they 
filled ? What is one of these passages named ? 

Lesson V. 

(a) — 1. How do things which produce sound move? What do 

they communicate to the air around them ? What be- 
comes of the air- waves ? How does the external ear 
receive them? Into what do they then pass, and to 
what? 
2. How do the air-waves affect the head of the drum ? Note, 
What is said of the telephone ? What does the vibra- 
tion of this membrane cause ? What is the final effect 
of all this ? 

(b) — 1. With what does the tube of the ear become clogged? 

What should be done? 

2. What is said of picking the ear with pins, etc. ? 

3. What is said of blows on the ear ? Firing of cannon ? 

4. What is said of diseases and hearing ? 



182 Lessons on the Human Body. 



THE SKIN. 

[Lesson VI. 

(a) — 1. What is the skin ? 

(b) — 1. Of what does the skin consist ? 

2. Of what is the scarf skin composed ? What is dandruff, 

etc. ? Has the scarf skin blood-vessels and nerves ? 
What of its thickness? 

3. Describe the true skin. What does the true skin contain 

besides blood-vessels and nerves ? 

4. How are the arteries, veins, etc., arranged in the skin ? 

How numerous are the nerves? What are the lym- 
phatics ? What of the oil-tubes, or sebaceous glands ? 

(c) — 1. What does the skin protect ? For what does it serve as an 

outlet ? Of what does the cast-out matter consist ? 
2. What is the work of the perspiration-tubes ? How numer- 
ous are they ? What is sensible perspiration ? Insen- 
sible ? 

5. What is the work of the oil-tubes ? 
4. What is the work of the lymphatics ? 



Lesson VII. 

1. What is said of the use of cosmetics, etc.? What is the 

danger in their use ? What are the best beautifiers of 
the skin ? 

2. Why is frequent bathing necessary ? What is deposited 

on the skin by the perspiration-tubes ? What would be 
the effect of leaving these impurities on the skin ? 

3. What are corns ? How caused ? 

4. What are skin-worms ? 

5. What is ring-worm ? 

6. What are freckles ? 



PART VIII. 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL 



ON THE 



HUMAN STSTEM. 



" Oh that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their 
brains! that we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform 
ourselves into beasts." — Shakspeare. 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE 
HUMAN SYSTEM. 



Lesson I. 

ALCOHOL. -WHAT IT IS. 



(a) How Alcohol is said to have been Discovered. 

— 1. Until men began to study alchemy, the liquid 
called alcohol was not known. The alchemists were 
men who directed their study and labor toward, dis- 
covering two objects, — one to make gold, or change 
common metals into it ; and the other to discover a 
substance, called the "elixir of life," which was to 
give perpetual youth and vigor, and prevent death 
in those who partook of it. 

2. The desire to discover these wonderful things 
led the alchemists to make very many experiments, 
and it is said that Paracelsus, a distinguished alche- 
mist, during his experiments discovered alcohol, and 
became acquainted with its exciting properties. Be- 
lieving that it would give permanent strength, he 
eagerly used it himself, and induced others to follow 

185 



186 Lessons on the Human Body. 

his example. After boasting that the liquid gave 
him assurance of great length of life, his early death 
was caused by a course of violence and intoxication. 

(b) Derivation of the Word " Alcohol. 99 — 1. The 
word " alcohol " is derived from the Arabic al-khol, 
meaning the powder of antimony, a substance with 
which some of the natives of Asia stain their eyelids, 
and thus, as they imagine, increase their personal 
beauty. 

2. As this powder is very fine and pure, the name 
which originally belonged to it was given, in course 
of time, by Europeans to the liquid known by us as 
alcohol'. The Arabs never called the liquid by that 
name. 

(c) Wliat Alcohol is. — 1. Alcohol is a clear, 
water-like liquid, of a hot, biting taste, and it has a 
slight and not unpleasant odor. 

2. Alcohol is not formed by distillation : it exists 
in simple fermented liquors, from which it is merely 
separated by the still. It gives to the liquors known 
as brandy, rum, whiskey, gin, etc., their intoxicating 
properties. 

3. It is not certain that the ancients were ac- 
quainted with stronger liquor than wine, which, 
when perfectly made from the pure juice of the 
grape, is certainly of great intoxicating power. 

(d) How Alcohol is formed. — 1. There is only 
one source from which alcohol is obtained ; namely, 
the fermentation (Lat., fermentum, to boil) of sugar, 
or of substances containing sugary matter. 



Alcohol and the Human System. 187 

2. When the juice of apples is first pressed out 
it is sweet, and has none of the sharp taste of cider. 
It does not become cider until it has fermented, or 
" worked," which action takes place after the juice 
has stood for a time. 

3. The juice of the apple, the grape, grain, or 
other vegetable from which alcohol is obtained, is 
composed mainly of sugar and water, flavored with 
the particular taste of the fruit or vegetable ; but 
after fermentation the juice loses its sweet flavor, 
and a portion of it has been changed into alcohol. 
Neither the water nor the flavoring-matter has been 
changed : the sugar, only, has become alcohol. 

(e) What Fermentation is. — l. When the juices 
of the vegetable have been allowed to stand for a 
time, decomposition begins. Now, sugar and alcohol 
are composed of the same elements, only not in the 
same proportions. Each consists of carbon, oxygen, 
and hydrogen. 

2. When fermentation sets in, bubbles filled with 
carbonic acid gas arise to the surface, and the gas 
escapes. In this way a portion of the carbon and 
some of the oxygen of the juice are set free ; but the 
hydrogen remains. The carbon, oxygen, and hydro- 
gen which still remain, form the liquid known to us 
as alcohol. 

3. Sugar, then, is separated into two parts, namely, 
carbonic acid gas, which is allowed to escape, and 
alcohol, which remains in the liquid. This process 
constitutes fermentation. 



188 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Lesson II. 

ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.— USES AND NATURE OF ALCOHOL, 

(a) Kinds and Quantity of Alcohol. — 1. All in- 
toxicating liquors contain alcohol, and it is this that 
makes people drunk. Brandy, whiskey, rum, and 
gin, which are called distilled liquors (Lat., distillare, 
to drop), are about one-half alcohol ; port wine and 
sherry wine are about one-fourth alcohol ; claret and 
the white wines about one-tenth ; and beer and cider 
have still less. Men usually cause those that contain 
the least alcohol to have the same effect as those that 
contain most by drinking larger quantities of them. 

(b) Some Uses of Alcohol. — 1. Alcohol is much 
used in medicine and in the arts. Medicines are fre- 
quently prepared by mixing drugs with it. Cologne 
and other perfumes are made by flavoring it with the 
different oils and essences ; and varnishes are made 
by mixing gums and resins with it. When mixed 
with turpentine, it forms camphene and other dan- 
gerous burning-fluids. 

2. Alcohol will not freeze ; and therefore it is col- 
ored red, and used in thermometers instead of mer- 
cury. 

3. Alcohol has a great liking for water, and readily 
mixes with or absorbs it. Meat put into alcohol will 
remain good for a long time ; for the alcohol absorbs 
the watery portions, and thus prevents decay. For 



Alcohol and the Human System. 189 

this reason it is much used by doctors and others in 
preserving, the flesh of specimens. But we cannot 
pause to mention all of its better uses, for, when 
rightly used, alcohol is a valuable servant. 

4. Man does not always use alcohol rightly, how- 
ever. Instead of keeping it as an obedient servant, 
he makes it a terrible, merciless master. 

(c) Stimulant and Narcotic. — 1. Alcohol is both 
a stimulant and a narcotic when taken into the body. 

2. As a stimulant, it excites the brain and nerves, 
hastens the circulation of the blood, and produces 
intoxication. 

3. As a narcotic (narke^ stupor), it blunts the sen- 
sibility of the brain and nerves, and produces sleep 
or stupor. All narcotics, when taken in sufficient 
quantity, are poisonous, and produce death. 



Lesson III. 

STIMULANTS, ANCIENT AND &ODERN. 

(a) Leaves and Moots. — 1. All races have acquired 
the use of stimulants in some form. 

2. The Australian and other of the lower races of 
mankind use merely certain roots and leaves, chewing 
them for their strengthening qualities. This kind of 
stimulation is only one step beyond that which causes 
the lower animals to seek certain plants for medicine, 
when they do not feel well. 



190 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(b) Advancement in Manufacturing Stimulants. 

— 1. The next step in advance of procuring stimu- 
lants by chewing is that made by the agricultural 
races, who use the chief grain grown by them, which, 
when fermented, yields a stimulant. 

2. Arrack is obtained from fermented rice, and is 
an exceedingly strong liquor manufactured in the 
East. This liquor probably reached Western Europe 
from Egypt, where it was very early known. It still 
forms the principal drink of African races. 

3. The wandering or pastoral tribes used, and still 
use, the milk of their flocks and herds, mixed with 
the honey of wild bees, in making their fermented 
drinks. The vessels used were made of the skins of 
animals, which were also used for storing away wines 
in the East. 

4. Various plants have been used in both civilized 
and uncivilized countries, for thousands of years, in 
making wines and liquors. Grape-juices, however, 
were formerly confined to the countries in the west- 
ern part of Asia, in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In 
China the use of wine was forbidden, and the vines 
were not allowed to grow. Mead, a drink made of 
water and honey, was used by the Scandinavians and 
Anglo-Saxons. 

5. Alcohol, the latest product of the art of manu- 
facturing stimulants, was not included among the 
drinks of the ancients, in any of its present forms, 
and was not known to savages until introduced by 
Europeans. 



Alcohol and the Human System. 191 



Lesson IV. 

ALCOHOL AND DIGESTION. 

(a) Alcohol , and Appetite for Food. — 1. Alcohol- 
excites the stomach to quickened action, but does not 
give any considerable nourishment. 

2. While the liquor continues to excite the' stom- 
ach, there is no great desire for food, because the 
nerves which produce the sensation of hunger are 
affected by the alcohol so that they do not perform 
their natural work. 

3. After the liquor has spent its force, the stomach 
and its nerves are left in a weak, partially paralyzed 
condition, and they do not crave food. 

4. If alcohol be taken regularly in small quantities, 
it causes the stomach to gradually lose its natural 
tone. It then becomes dependent on the artificial 
stimulus of the liquor, rather than on the natural 
vigor afforded by food. 

(b) Alcohol Delays Digestion. — 1. One of the 
principal elements of the gastric juice is pepsin. It 
has already been stated that alcohol has a great liking 
for water, and when it enters the stomach, it absorbs 
some of the watery portion of the gastric juice, and 
causes the pepsin to thicken, or coagulate. The pep- 
sin then settles down in a fine white powder. 1 The 

1 Take the stomach of a calf or pig that has just been killed, 
rinse the gastric juice out of it with a very small quantity of water. 



192 Lessons on the Human Body. 

gastric juice thus becomes decomposed, and its nature 
is so changed as to make it unable to deal with the 
food. As a consequence, food taken into the stomach 
is not prepared for the body, and part of it passes 
out of the stomach unchanged, causing irritation and 
inflammation wherever it goes. 

2. Continued indulgence in alcoholic drinks nearly 
always results in diseases of the digestive organs, — 
dyspepsia, inflammation of the stomach, inflammation 
of the bowels, diarrhoea, etc. Whenever these organs 
fail to do their work properly, all other parts of the 
system become deranged and the whole body suffers. 

(c) Alcohol Inflames the Stomach, etc. — 1. Dr. 
Albert Da} 7 ", an authority of worlcVwide reputation, 
says, " There is no appearance, after death, more 
common in the confirmed drunkard, who perishes 
after a long continuance of this habit, than a state 
of chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of 
the stomach. In this condition the walls of the organ 
are sometimes considerably thickened, are covered 
in their interior with a network of vessels closely 
injected with blood, and may present more or less 
extensive traces of ulceration. The thickening of 
the coats of the stomach may proceed to such an 
extent as to interrupt the passage of the food, 
through mechanical impediment." 

and put the juice in a small bottle. The liquid will be milk-white, 
and, if a little alcohol be poured into it, the white portion will settle 
to the bottom. This white sediment is the pepsin, without which 
the other portion of the gastric juice cannot dissolve the food. 



Alcohol and the Human System, 193 

Lesson V. 

ALCOHOL AND THE CIRCULATION. — THE HEART, ETC. 

(a) Alcohol Hastens the Circulation. — 1. The 

cause of this is found partly in the action of alcohol 
on the blood-vessels, and partly in its effect on the 
nerves which govern the action of the heart. If the 
number of beats of the heart in twenty-four hours is 
about 100,000, the effect of an ounce of pure alcohol 
is to increase the number of beats to about 104,000 
in the same length of time. The larger the quantity 
of alcohol taken, the greater is the number of beats 
in a given time. The hastening of the action of the 
heart has caused alcohol to be called a stimulant 
(stimulus, a spur). 

(b) Sow Alcohol Injures the Heart. — 1. By stim- 
ulating the nerves of the heart, alcohol changes its 
natural action, and causes it to beat with undue 
rapidity, thus overworking and weakening its mus- 
cular power. 

2. After the stimulus has spent its force, the heart 
is exhausted, and does not beat as quickly as before 
the alcohol was taken, and thus fails to propel the 
blood with natural speed. In this condition it is 
unable to perform its ordinary work, much less to 
perform any unusual task, if it should be called on 
to do so. 

3. Continued use of alcohol may overtask the 



194 Lessons on the Human Body. 

heart so much as to relax its muscular fibres, and 
cause enlargement of its cavities. 1 In this condition 
it may suddenly lose power of contraction (become 
paralyzed), and death would instantly result. 

4. Alcohol by constant use causes a softening of the 
muscular substance of the heart, and fattens it. This 
process is called fatty degeneration. The more a 
muscle is thus degenerated, the weaker it becomes, 
because its muscular substance grows less, while the 
fat increases. When fatty degeneration takes place 
in the heart, its walls become so soft that a finger 
could be easily pushed through them, and in this 
condition an unusual effort of the heart often causes 
its rupture from side to side, ending in sudden death. 

(c) Alcohol Relaxes the Small Arteries. — What 
Results. — 1. Alcohol exerts a paralyzing influence 
on the nerves which govern the action of the mus- 
cular fibres of the arteries. When these nerves 
are paralyzed, they permit the muscles of the small 
arteries to relax, and in this way enlarge the size of 
these little blood-vessels. They then become swollen 
with blood in every part of the body. " Carried to 
its full extent, this becomes congestion." Thus it 
will be seen that alcohol deranges the entire circula- 
tion of the blood, and leads to disease of the heart 
and other organs. 



1 In heart-disease it is more especially hurtful by quickening the 
beat, causing congestion in the capillaries, and irregular circulation, 
and thus mechanically inducing enlargement of the cavities. — Dr. 
T. K. Chambers. 



Alcohol and the Human System. 195 



Lesson VI. 

ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD. 

(a) How Alcohol Enters the Blood. — 1. When 
alcohol enters the stomach, some of it is instantly 
absorbed into the blood through the coats of the 
blood-vessels, without awaiting the slower process of 
absorption by the lacteals in the intestines. 

2. Carried by the circulation to the heart, and 
then to the lungs, all that does not escape in vapor 
by the breath goes back again to the heart to be 
sent with the blood to all parts of the body. 

(b) How Alcohol Affects the Blood. — 1. The mi- 
croscope has enabled us to discover how quickly the 
elements of food, drugs, and poisons make their ap- 
pearance in the blood, and to learn how it is affected 
by them. 

2. Alcohol mingles with the 'plasma of the blood, 
deprives it of its richness, and thus overcomes its 
power to nourish the system. 

3. The corpuscles are caused to contract so much 
as to be unable to absorb the usual amount of oxygen in 
the lungs, or carry out carbonic acid from the blood in 
the capillaries. The coloring-matter of the corpuscles 
dissolves, they become pale, and their shape changes 
greatly. Some throw out matter, which floats about 
in the fluid portion of the blood. 

4. The loss of strength in the corpuscles is indi- 



196 Lessons on the Human Body. 

cated by black specks of fatty matter, which, in all 
cases of disorder in the blood, are found in great 
numbers. 

(c) Alcohol Interferes with the Burning of Waste- 
Matter. — 1. By affecting the size of the corpuscles, 
alcohol diminishes the supply of oxygen in the blood, 
and thus prevents the development of heat, and 
checks the burning, or oxidation, of the waste-matter 
in the capillaries. 

2. Portions of this dead matter are not changed 
by the burning process into carbonic acid and vapor, 
and therefore are not cast out in these forms by the 
lungs, but remain in the blood, and make it impure, 
poison it. 

3. Impurity of the blood manifests itself in erup- 
tions and pustules of the skin, scurvy, and boils. 
The system endeavors in these ways to cast out the 
impurities which the lungs, pores of the skin, and 
other organs, are unable to deal with in time to pre- 
vent disease. 

(d) Effects of a Weakened Condition of the Blood* 
— 1. An influence which weakens the blood by 
depriving it of its nourishing properties must, of 
necessity, result in withholding from the body that 
which feeds its organs, in checking growth, and in 
injury to life. A weak and impure condition of 
the nutritive fluid is probably the first step to the 
starving and weakening of the body which it 
feeds. 

2. The celebrated Dr. Virchow says that " alcohol 



Alcohol and the Human System. 197 

poisons the blood, arrests the development of the 
corpuscles, and hastens their decay." 

3. The learned Dr. T. K. Chambers asserts that 
" alcohol impoverishes the blood, and there is no 
surer road to that degeneration of muscular fibre so 
much to be feared." 

4. Dr. Benjamin W. Richardson, who has spent 
many years in investigating the effects of alcohol, 
and whose reputation is world-wide, says, " On the 
minute blood-vessels — those vessels which form the 
terminals of the arteries, and in which the vital acts 
of nutrition, and production of animal heat and force, 
are carried on — alcohol produces a paralyzing effect: 
hence the flush of the face and hands which we 
observe in those who have partaken freely of wine. 
This flush extends to all parts of the brain, to the 
lungs, to the digestive organs. Carried to its full 
extent, it becomes a congestion, and, in those who 
are long habituated to excess of alcohol, the perma- 
nency of the congestion is seen in the discolored skin, 
and too often in the disorganization which is planted 
in the vital organs, the lungs, the liver, the kidneys, 
the brain." 

5. Mental disease of every grade, from the mildest 
depression of spirits to the most furious craziness, 
may be caused by the collection in the blood of the 
waste particles of the body. 



198 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson VII. 

ALCOHOL AND THE BRAIN. 

(a) Alcohol Affects the Substance of the Brain. — 

1. Alcohol hastens the circulation so much as to 
overcrowd the minute capillaries of the brain, thus 
causing congestion of these blood-vessels, and creating 
a pressure that interferes with their healthy action. 
Epilepsy and apoplexy frequently result from such 
pressure upon the blood-vessels in the brain. 

2. Congestion caused by stimulation is often in- 
dicated by a milky fluid found deposited beneath the 
pia mater (inner coat) of the brain, when affected by 
alcohol. 

3. Alcohol hardens albuminous (like the white of 
an egg) substances with which it is mixed. As the 
brain is composed in great part of albumen, it be- 
comes hardened by the alcohol carried into it by the 
circulation ; and doctors often find it unnecessary to 
soak a brain in alcohol before dissecting it, because 
it is already sufficiently hardened to suit their pur- 
pose. This hardening of the substance of the brain, 
even when slight, interferes with its work, and dulls 
the operations of the mind. When the hardening is 
great, death results. 

(b) Alcohol Accumulates in the Brain. — 1. The 
brain is more affected by alcohol than any other 
organ. The tendency of alcohol to accumulate in 



Alcohol and the Human System. 199 

the brain is twice as great as in the liver, and three 
times as great as in other organs. 

2. When a person has taken an excessive dose of 
alcohol, death immediately occurs from the sudden 
shock caused by the rapid massing of alcohol in the 
brain. The nerve-centres are paralyzed, all action 
of the organs ceases, and death results. 

(c) Derangement of the Brain. — 1. Unhealthful 
qualities of the blood caused by alcohol affect the size, 
shape, and color of the cells of the brain, and con- 
sequently their action, or thought-producing power. 
The brain then loses control of the mind, and insanity 
is the result. 

2. The destructive effect of alcohol on the powers 
of the mind, through its action on the substance of 
the brain, presents a sad picture. Whenever the brain 
is too much excited by prolonged mental action or 
by alcoholic stimulants, disorder of the mind follows. 
It is not to be supposed that insanity always results 
from these causes. Usually, after a fit of intoxica- 
tion, the brain returns to nearly its natural condition, 
and the mind recovers its power ; but sometimes the 
brain and mind do not return to their natural con- 
dition, the mind continues weak and irregular in its 
action, and the person becomes a lunatic. 

3. While insanity does not always result from 
continuous use of . alcohol, some form of mental 
weakness is caused by the habit. The memory fails, 
the imagination becomes dull, the judgment becomes 
weakened, and the mind is kept fretful, irritable, and 



200 Lessons on the Human Body. 

dissatisfied. These conditions exhibit a wide differ- 
ence between the bright and well-disciplined mind 
that obeys the will, understands and reasons correctly, 
and the mind that is partly deranged by an influence 
which interferes with the structure and work of the 
brain, the seat of the mind. Dr. Richardson says, 
" I really doubt if a man who has been through the 
dead-drunk stage of alcohol is ever quite the same 
healthy man he was before." This remark applies 
• to the health of the mind, as well as to that of the 
body. 

4. "If, by reducing the balancing power of the 
vessels which regulate the supply of the blood to my 
brain, I permit a more rapid current of blood to feed 
my brain, I may for a time think more rapidly, and 
express myself with more apparent energy. It is 
clear, however, that under such circumstances I do 
but exhaust more quickly, require to be wound up 
more frequently, and wear out more speedily." — Dr. 
Richardson. 

5. Although the imagination may sometimes seem 
to be stimulated to great power and activity under 
the momentary excitement of alcohol, still the ima- 
gination, judgment, and every other faculty of the 
mind, in time, become injured or destroyed by it. 

6. Unless a healthy brain is present to guide the 
judgment, we cannot expect a true and sound opin- 
ion, nor a correct action as a result. 



Alcohol and the Human System. 201 

Lesson VIII. 

ALCOHOL, THE NERVES AND MUSCLES. 

(a) How Alcohol Affects the Nerve-Pulp. — 1. 

When alcohol reaches the nerves by means of the 
blood which circulates to them, it absorbs much of 
the water contained in the nerve-pulp, and leaves 
it so hard and dry as to be spoiled for its proper 
office. The delicate substance of the nerves is the 
one that, with the brain, soonest becomes affected by 
alcohol. 

2. An authority says, " Alcohol instantly contracts 
the extremity of the nerves it touches, and deprives 
them of sense and motion, destroying their use." 
While under the influence of alcohol, a man may 
grasp a hot iron and be severely burned, or receive 
wounds or other injuries, without feeling much pain 
at the time, because the nerves are so much paralyzed 
as to be unable to feel, or to convey sensations to the 
brain. The brain itself is so affected as to be unable 
to receive the alarm, if it could be made by the 
nerves. Dr. Richardson says, "I learned through 
experiment, step by step, that the true action of 
alcohol in a physiological point of view is to create 
paralysis of nervous power." 

(b) Alcohol and Muscular Movement. — 1. The 
nerves govern the muscles in all their movements. 
When, however, the sensibility of the nerves is 



202 Lessons on the Human Body. 

blunted by alcohol, they fail to perform their work 
regularly and perfectly. 

2. If the quantity of alcohol taken be sufficient, 
its influence extends to the spinal cord, and thence 
to the nerves that control and direct the movements 
of the muscles. Some of the nerves being quite 
paralyzed, they are unable to convey the commands 
of the brain, they lose all control of the muscles to 
which they belong, and motion cannot be produced. 
Others convey messages and power to the muscles so 
irregularly as to cause them to contract too much or 
too little. 

3. Some of the muscles of the legs contract too 
much, and carry the feet too far : again they contract 
too little, and the feet are not carried far enough, in 
this way causing great uncertainty of movement. 
Control of the muscles of the hands is lost in a simi- 
lar way. In course of time this deranged condition 
of the nerves and muscles becomes fixed, and the 
skilled workman is forced to seek rougher employ- 
ment, in which delicacy of touch and exactness of 
muscular movement are not so much required. The 
final effect of alcohol is to permanently weaken both 
nerves and muscles. 



Alcohol and the Human System. 203 



Lesson XX. 

HOW ALCOHOL AFFECTS THE TEMPERATURE OF THE 

BODY. 

(a) Hotv Warmth of the Body is Kept up* — l. 

Animal lie at is kept up by the burning of the worn- 
out particles in all parts of the body in which' blood 
circulates. 

2. The worn-out particles enter the capillaries, 
where the oxygen in the blood meets them and 
unites with them. The union of the oxygen with 
the waste-matter kindles a slow fire, which burns the 
carbon and hydrogen, and forms carbonic acid and 
watery vapor. 

(b) Alcohol Heduces the Heat of the Body. — 1. 
Alcohol, from its effect on the corpuscles which 
convey oxygen into the blood (See Lesson IV. (J), 
par. 3), lessens the burning of waste-matter, and 
diminishes the warmth of the body. 

2. To deprive the blood of its proper supply of 
oxygen has precisely the same effect upon its burn- 
ing of waste-matter and production of heat, that 
withholding the proper supply of air has on the fire 
of the stove. The fire burns freely, and produces 
heat in exact proportion to the amount of air sup- 
plied. As alcohol tends to diminish the supply of 
oxygen, its effect is to arrest the development of 
heat, and finally reduce the temperature of the body. 



204 Lessons 9 on the Human Body. 

3. In regard to the popular idea that alcohol sup- 
ports the animal temperature, Dr. Richardson says, 
" It will be borne in mind that I have described a 
flush from alcohol as the first effect of it in its first 
stage, when into the paralyzed vessels the larger vol- 
ume of blood is poured. In that stage, that is to 
say, in the earlier part of it, I found an increase of 
temperature. This increase, however, was soon dis- 
covered to be nothing more than radiation from an 
enlarged surface of blood ; a process, in fact, of rapid 
cooling, followed quickly by direct evidence of cool- 
ing. After this I found that through every subse- 
quent stage of the alcoholic process, — the stage of 
excitement, of temporary paralysis of muscle, of 
narcotism, and deep intoxication, — the temperature 
was reduced in the most marked degree. I placed 
alcohol and cold side by side in experiment, and 
found that they ran together equally in fatal effect, 
and I determined, that, in death from alcohol, the 
great reduction of animal temperature is one of the 
most pressing causes of death. 

4. Varied and particular experiment has proved, 
beyond possibility of a doubt, that instead of being 
a producer of heat in those who use it, and for that 
reason a food in that sense, alcohol is a reducer of 
heat, and for that reason is not a food in that sense. 

(c) Alcohol, and Exposure to Extreme Cold. — 
1. The arctic explorers, Capts. Ross and Parry, Dr. 
Kane, and others, discovered that alcohol did not 
keep out the cold, and that men who did not use it 



Alcohol and the Human System. 205 

endured exposure to severe cold much better than 
those who did. 

2. " In nearly all the cases of death caused by ex- 
posure to cold that I have known or heard of, it was 
found on inquiry, that the persons so dying had taken 
some alcoholic drinks, not necessarily in large quan- 
tity, before going out into a low temperature ; the 
effects produced being languor, drowsiness, inability 
or disinclination to walk, stupor, and finally death. 
So well is this bad effect known by people in the 
north-west of America and in Canada, that they will 
seldom take even a single glass of spirits when about 
to be exposed to extreme cold." — Dr. Johist Eae, in 
Medical Journal. 

3. Tests have been made with thermometers 
adapted to the purppse, and it has been found that 
the first flush caused by alcohol raises the tempera- 
ture of the blood about half of a degree, but that the 
temperature soon sinks two or three degrees below 
98, which is its natural warmth. 



Lesson X. 

INTOXICATION BY ALCOHOL. 

(a) Hie Stage of Excitement, — 1. In ordinary 
intoxication by alcohol, the first effect is a feeling 
of well-being and good nature. 

2. Gradually, as the influence of the stimulant 



206 Lessons on the Human Body. 

increases, the excitement takes the form of extreme 
gayety, noisy mirth, or great talkativeness. The 
blood surges through the system; the brain takes 
part in the general whirl, and for a short time is 
spurred to great activity. The face is flushed, the 
blood-vessels become swollen, and the eyes flash. 

(b) The Stage of Mental Weakness. — 1. In this 
stage, the stimulant has spent its strength, and re- 
action begins. The memory begins to fail ; the 
thoughts become confused, and cannot be fixed 
longer than an instant on any thing ; the temper is 
easily aroused ; self-control is nearly or altogether 
lost, and offence is quickly taken at real or fancied 
affronts. In this condition the person may commit 
crimes, or be guilty of violent deeds, at which he 
would be horrified while in his natural state. 

(c) The Stage of Muscular Weakness. — \. In this 
stage, the nerves lose control of the muscles, and the 
man staggers, reels, and is unable to stand erect. 
(See Lesson VLIL (5), par. 1, 2, and -5.) Muscles of 
the lower lip, the eyelids, and the lower limbs, fail 
first. At length the man falls powerless. 

(d) The Stage of Stupor. — 1. In this the last 
stage of intoxication, the narcotic properties of alco- 
hol do their work. The temperature of the body 
falls with the dying power of the stimulant, and the 
man sinks into insensibility. 

2. After an indefinite number of hours, the victim 
awakens from his stupor, and usually suffers from 
great thirst, terrible pains in the head caused by 



Alcohol and the Human System. 207 

congestion of the blood-vessels of the brain, sick- 
ness of the stomach, and distressing weariness of 
the nerves and muscles. This condition of discom- 
fort of mind and body may last a number of days 
before the victim recovers from it. Nature permits 
no violation of her laws without exacting a penalty.. 



Liesson XI. 

DELIRIUM- TREMENS. 

(a) Character of the Disease. — 1. Delirium* 
tremens is a disease caused by excessive use of alco- 
holic liquors. One who has it is afflicted with tremor 
of the entire body, sleeplessness, and delirium. The 
disease is one of the forms of insanity. 

(b) Immediate Causes. — 1. While this disease 
is sometimes caused by a single fit of intoxication in 
persons of very nervous temperament, it is usually 
caused by excessive and long-continued use of alco- 
hol. At times, delirium-tremens sets in while a man 
is still continuing the free use of liquor ; but in most 
instances, the disease occurs when the hard drinker 
suddenly quits the use of liquor temporarily. In 
such instances, the weakened brain and nerves feel 
the loss of the prop to which they have been accus- 
tomed, and become entirely deranged. 

(c) Condition of the Victim of Delirium-tremens. 
— 1. The first symptoms of the disease are great 



208 Lessons on the Human Body. 

nervousness and restlessness. A sudden noise, the 
opening of a door, or the entrance of a visitor, 
startles and excites the victim. His tongue and 
hands become tremulous, and he cannot sleep. If 
he chances to doze for a moment, he is aroused by 
horrible dreams. 

2. Delirium soon begins, and the victim mutters 
to himself, or talks wildly to those about him. He 
imagines that he is surrounded by frightful monsters, 
snakes, and other loathsome reptiles. He makes 
desperate endeavors to escape from these, or from 
some one, who, as he imagines, wishes to do him 
harm, or to kill him. 

3. The delirium is most frequently of this fright- 
ful nature, but not always so. Sometimes the insane 
fancy of the victim takes a droll or ludicrous form, 
and he appears to be highly amused by the comical 
pictures of his fancy. 

4. While he is not often dangerous, still, in his 
frantic efforts to escape an imaginary enemy or dan- 
ger, he may commit murder, or take his own life. 

5. The delirium continues till the victim dies 
from exhaustion, or until he sinks into a stupor from 
which he may awaken comparatively sensible. 

(d) General Results of Delirium- Tremens. — 1. 
If the strength of the victim has not been too much 
wasted by long use of alcohol, delirium-tremens is 
seldom fatal. Those whose strength and general 
health have been broken down by great use of alco- 
hol frequently die from delirium-tremens. In such 



Alcohol and the Human System. 209 

cases, death is often very sudden. The victim falls 
in a faint, from which he never recovers, or sinks in 
a stupor which ends in death. 



Lesson XII. 

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT 
TEMPERAMENTS. 

(a) The Nervous Temperament. — 1. People of 
nervous temperament have very active brains and 
sensitive nerves, are easily excited, and readily be- 
come depressed, or " low-spirited." 

2. The stimulating property of alcohol increases 
the natural excitability of the brain in people of this 
temperament, and leads them into great excesses. 
The excitable brain and nerves, which at best are 
very difficult of control, become entirely unmanage- 
able under the influence of so powerful a stimulant ; 
and a person of extremely nervous nature may, 
while excited by alcohol, be as ungovernable as the 
most violently insane. Crimes of the most horrible 
nature are frequently committed by people while the 
brain is frenzied by alcohol. 

3. The depression of mind, "lowness of spirits," 
to wdiich nervous people are so liable after periods 
of great nervous excitement, is greatly increased by 
the narcotic elements of alcohol, which paralyze the 
brain and nervous centres. The action of the brain 



210 Lessons on the Human Body. 

is disturbed, the mind is clouded, and the nerves are 
unstrung. While in this depressed mental condition, 
people often commit suicide to escape the tortures 
of mind to which they are subject. 

4. The nervous temperament should avoid every 
thing that tends to cause an increase of nervous 
excitability, all stimulants and narcotics. 

(b) The Sanguine Temperament. — 1. In people 
of this temperament the organs of the blood are 
very active, the blood circulates freely, and all the 
powers of the body are strong, and easily excited. 

2. As the circulation of the blood in persons of 
sanguine temperament is naturally very active, alco- 
holic stimulants cannot be indulged without fear of 
disease. In such persons, stimulation creates so great 
an increase of the already active circulation, as to 
overwork the heart and blood-vessels, and produce 
paralysis, or other disease of these organs. 

3. In the sanguine, as in the nervous tempera- 
ment, stimulants are unnecessary and injurious. 

(c) The Lymphatic Temperament. — 1. People of 
this temperament are commonly stout, fat, or inclined 
to fatness ; their skin is soft, and flesh somewhat 
flabby; the muscles are small and weak, and the 
whole body lacks vigor. The mind is less active 
than in any of the other temperaments. The temper 
is calm, and not easily aroused. The circulation of 
the blood is not as rapid as in the sanguine and the 
nervous temperaments. 

2. It might be supposed that stimulation would 



Alcohol and the Human System. 211 

benefit this temperament ; and so it would, if it could 
be made constant, and if there were no re-action or 
depression after stimulation. It must be borne in 
mind, that, while alcohol stimulates at first, it nar- 
cotizes or stupefies at last. 

3. When the force of the stimulant has spent 
itself, the alcohol exerts its power as a narcotic, and 
the inactivity of mind and body which pertains to 
this temperament becomes greater. Thus it will be 
seen that alcohol increases, rather than counteracts, 
the weaknesses of the lymphatic temperament. Al- 
coholic stimulation should be avoided by persons who 
wish to permanently arouse activity of mind and 
body. Certain kinds of food, such as beef, mutton, 
coffee, etc., give nourishment and permanent stimu- 
lation, without depressing re-action. 



Lesson XIII. 

ALCOHOL AND MORAL CHARACTER. 

(a) The Moral Feelings Blunted. — 1. Alcohol 
not only weakens the powers of the mind, but also 
dulls the moral feelings. A carelessness about right 
and wrong is gradually induced by its free use, and 
a path is thus opened which leads, step by step, to 
dishonesty and other forms of crime. 

(b) Dishonesty of Speech. — 1, It leads to the 



212 Lessons on the Human Body. 

violation of truth, either to conceal the fault of in- 
temperance, or the errors committed while under its 
influence. 

(c) Dishonesty in Regard to Property of Others. 

— 1. Honesty in respect to the property of others 
is violated, either to obtain the means to gratify the 
appetite for alcoholic liquors, to pay the expenses of 
extravagant habits which often accompany intoxica- 
tion, or to provide for the pinching wants which such 
habits occasion, and which cannot be provided for, 
because of the loss of property and employment. 

(d) Crime in General. — 1. Volumes might be 
filled with the accounts of thefts, assaults, riots, fire- 
setting, and murders, committed by those who have 
given themselves up to the bad influences of alcoholic 
liquors. 

(e) Appetite for Alcohol may he Inherited. •— 1. 
Some of the best medical authorities say that an 
appetite for alcoholic liquors may be inherited, just 
as people inherit such diseases as scrofula, gout, or 
consumption, and that it obeys all the laws that gov- 
ern such diseases as are inherited from parents. It 
is also declared by excellent authority, that this dis- 
eased appetite may skip a generation, and appear again 
in a succeeding one with all its former strength. 

Conclusion. 

Your own observation and reflection will enable 
you to compare the results which flow from the use 



Alcohol and the Human System. 213 

of alcohol, with the results that attend a steady 
course of industry, prudence, and wise care of the 
body and mind. 



Lesson XIV. 

"THE STORY BRIEFLir TOLD, 

1. Alcohol is a stimulant and a narcotic. 

2. Alcohol interferes with appetite for food. 

3. Digestion is delayed and made imperfect by- 
alcohol. 

4. Disease of the stomach and organs of digestion 
is caused by alcohol. 

5. Alcohol unduly hastens the circulation of the 
blood, and causes congestion of the blood-vessels. 

6. Alcohol increases the work of the heart, and 
thereby exhausts its power. 

7. Alcohol softens the muscular fibres of the 
heart, and weakens it by changing the fibres into fat. 

8. Alcohol relaxes the small arteries, and unfits 
them for their work. 

9. Alcohol weakens the plasma of the blood, and 
overcomes its nourishing properties. 

10. The corpuscles of the blood are contracted by 
alcohol, their Size and form are changed, and their 
capacity to supply oxygen, and remove carbonic acid, 
is diminished. 



214 Lessons on the Human Body. 

11. Alcohol interferes with the burning of waste- 
matter in the capillaries, and thus poisons the blood, 
and prevents it from feeding the body. 

12 8 Alcohol congests the blood-vessels of the 
brain, and causes apoplexy. 

IS. The substance of the brain is hardened by 
alcohol, and its thought-producing power injured. 

14. Alcohol collects in the brain, and causes 
paralysis and death. 

15. Alcohol affects the size, shape, and color of 
the cells of the brain, and produces insanity. 

16. Alcohol absorbs water from the nerves, and 
paralyzes their action. 

17. Alcohol, by its effects on the nerves, interferes 
with and weakens muscular movements. 

18. Alcohol diminishes the heat of the body, and 
makes it sensitive to severe cold. It is not a pro- 
tection against cold. 

19. Alcohol affects injuriously men of all the dif- 
ferent temperaments. 

20. Alcohol intoxicates. 

21. Alcohol causes delirium-tremens, .and leads to 
other forms of insanity. 

22. Alcohol tends to injure the moral sense, and 
leads to crime. 

23. Appetite for alcoholic liquors, may be in- 
herited. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART VIII. 
ALCOHOL AND THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 



ILesson I. 

(a) — 1. About when did alcohol become known? Who were the 

alchemists ? 
2. What is related of Paracelsus ? 

(b) — 1. From what is the word " alcohol " derived ? 

2. How did alcohol obtain its name ? 

(c) — 1. What is alcohol? 

2. In what is alcohol first found? What property does it 

give to the various liquors ? 

3. Were the ancients acquainted with pure alcohol ? 

(d) — 1. From what source is alcohol obtained ? 

2. When does the juice of apples become cider? 

3. Of what is the juice of the fruits, etc., composed ? What 

occurs after the juices have fermented ? What has 
been changed into alcohol by fermentation? 

(e) — 1 . What • happens when the juices stand for a time ? Of 

what elements are sugar and alcohol composed ? 

2. When fermentation takes place, what happens to the 

juices? What are set free by fermentation? What 
elements form alcohol ? 

3. What, then, constitutes fermentation ? 

217 



218 Lessons on the Human Body. 



Lesson II. 

(a) — 1. What do all intoxicating liquors contain? What liquors 

are about one-half alcohol? What about one-fourth? 
What still less ? 

(b) — 1. What of the use of alcohol in medicine and the arts ? 

2. Why is alcohol used in thermometers ? 

3. What is said of the liking of alcohol for water ? How 

does it preserve meat ? Why do doctors and others use 
it in preserving specimens, etc. ? When is alcohol a 
valuable servant ? 

(c) — 1. What is the nature of alcohol when taken into the body ? 

2. What are its effects as a stimulant ? 

3. What are its effects as a narcotic? What is said of all 

narcotics ? 



Lesson III. 

(a) — 1. What of the use of stimulants among all races ofmen? 

2. What do the Australian and other lower races use as 
stimulants? 

(b) — 1. How do agricultural races obtain their stimulants ? 

2. From what is arrack obtained ? How did this liquor find 

its way into Europe ? 

3. How do the wandering tribes obtain their stimulants? 

What vessels were used to hold the liquor? 

4. What have been used, and for how long, in making wines 

and liquors ? To what countries was grape-juice con- 
fined ? What of China ? What is mead, and by whom 
was it used ? 

5. What of alcohol and the ancients? Alcohol and the 

savages ? 

Lesson IV. 

(a) — 1. How does alcohol affect the stomach? Does it give 
nourishment ? 
2. What is said of the appetite while alcohol excites the 
stomach? Why is there no great desire for food? 



Alcohol and the Human System. 219 

3. What is said of the appetite for food after alcohol has 

spent its force? What is then the condition of the 
stomach and its nerves ? 

4. What is the effect of small doses of alcohol taken regu- 

larly ? On what does the stomach then depend ? 

(b) — 1. What is pepsin? What does alcohol absorb in the 

stomach ? What effect has it on the pepsin ? What 
is the condition of the gastric j-uice then ? How does 
this affect the digestion of the food ? What becomes 
of the undigested food ? 
2. What are the results of the use of alcohol in respect to 
diseases of the digestive organs ? What effect has 
disease of these organs on other parts of the system ? 

(c) — 1. What does Dr. Day state of the inflammation of the 

stomach by alcohol ? Of ulceration ? Of the thick- 
ening of the coats of the stomach? 



Lesson V. 

(a) — 1. How does alcohol affect the circulation of the blood? In 

what is the cause of this found ? How does alcohol 
affect the beats of the heart? What is the effect of 
still greater quantities of alcohol on the action of the 
heart ? Why is alcohol called a stimulant ? 

(b) — 1. What effect has the increased action of the heart on its 

power ? 

2. What is the condition of the heart after alcohol has spent 

its force ? What is the result of this exhaustion of the 
heart ? 

3. What effect on the muscular fibres of the heart may con- 

tinuous use of alcohol have? What may this weak 
condition result in ? 

4. What is said of softening and fattening the heart ? How 

does softening and fattening a muscle affect its power ? 
Why ? When the heart suffers fatty degeneration, 
what may happen ? Describe the condition of such a 
heart. 

(c) — 1. How does alcohol affect the nerves of the arteries? What 

effect has this on the small arteries ? What is then the 
condition of these arteries ? What is this condition of 



220 Lessons on the Human Body. 

these arteries when carried to its full extent ? What, 
then, is the effect of alcohol on the entire circulation, 
and what follows ? 

Lesson VI. 

(a) — 1. What occurs when alcohol enters the stomach? 

2. Whither is it carried by the circulation ? What becomes 
of a certain portion of it ? 

(b) — 1. What has the microscope enabled us to discover in respect 

to food, drugs, etc., and the blood ? 

2. How does alcohol affect the plasma of the blood ? 

3. How does alcohol affect the corpuscles ? What results 

from this contraction of the corpuscles ? What other 
effects does alcohol have on the corpuscles ? 

4. How is loss of strength in the corpuscles indicated ? 

(c) — 1. How does alcohol affect the burning of waste-matter in 

the blood ? Tell what is said of the supply of oxygen. 

2. What is the condition, then, of portions of the worn-oUt 

matter ? What effect is produced by worn-out matter 
remaining in the blood ? 

3. How does impurity of the blood show itself ? What does 

the system endeavor to do with the impure matter ? 
(d) — 1. What are the effects of a weak condition of the blood? 
To what is weakness of the blood a first step ? 

2. What does Dr. Virchow say of the effects of alcohol on 

the blood ? 

3. What does Dr. Chambers say of alcohol and the blood? 

4. What does Dr. Richardson say of its effects on the small 

blood-vessels? What are the effects of this paralysis 
of the blood-vessels ? To what does the flush extend ? 
How is this congestion indicated ? 

5. What is said of diseases of the mind, and collections of 

waste-matter in the blood ? 

Lesson VII. 

(a) — 1. How does alcohol affect the capillaries of the brain? 
What is the effect of this over-crowding of these 
vessels? What diseases result? 



Alcohol and the Human System. 221 

2. How is congestion indicated when caused by stimula- 

tion ? 

3. What effect has alcohol on albuminous substances? Of 

what is the brain composed ? How does alcohol affect 
the substance of the brain? In what condition do 
doctors sometimes find a brain ? What are the bad 
effects of this hardening of the brain ? 

(b) — 1. How is the brain affected by alcohol when compared with 

other organs? What tendency has alcohol to collect 
in the brain ? 
2. What causes sudden death when a great quantity of 
alcohol has been swallowed at one time ? What of the 
nerve-centres ? 

(c) — 1. How do unhealthful qualities of the blood affect the 

brain-cells? What is the effect on the mind? 

2. What results from prolonged brain-work and from great 

stimulation ? Does insanity always result ? Does the 
brain always recover its health? 

3. If insanity does not always result, what does? W T hat 

difference do these conditions of mind present when 
compared with a healthy mind? What does Dr. 
Richardson say of a man who has once been " dead 
drunk " ? 

4. What, then, are the general effects of increasing the flow 

of blood unduly ? 

5. What is the temporary effect of alcohol on the imagina- 

tion ? What are its final effects on the faculties of the 
mind? 

6. What cannot be expected if a healthy brain is not 

present ? 

Lesson VIII. 

(a) — 1. How does alcohol affect the nerve-pulp ? What portions 
of the body soonest feel the influences of alcohol ? 
2. What does an authority say of the effects of alcohol on 
the nerves? What is said of the grasping of a hot 
iron ? Of wounds, etc., while under the influence of 
alcohol ? What does Dr. Richardson say that he 
learned by experiment in regard to alcohol and the 
nerves ? 



222 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(b) — 1. What govern muscular movement? What when the 
nerves are injured by alcohol ? 

2. How is the spinal cord, etc., affected by a sufficient dose 

of alcohol? How is the control of the muscles af- 
fected ? How do the muscles then act ? 

3. How are the muscles of the legs affected ? Of the hands ? 

How is a skilled workman affected in course of time ? 
What, then, is the final effect of alcohol on the nerves 
and muscles ? 

Lesson IX. 

(a) — 1. How is the heat of the body kept up ? 

2. What takes place in the capillaries ? What does the 
union of oxygen and waste-matter produce? 

(b) — 1. What effect does alcohol have on the temperature of the 

body ? By what means ? 

2. What are the effects of depriving the waste-matter of 

oxygen ? What effect does the deprivation of oxygen 
have on the fire of a stove ? In what proportion does 
a fire burn freely ? 

3. How does alcohol affect the temperature at first ? What 

is this slight increase really? By what is it quickly 
followed? How is the temperature affected in the 
latter stages of intoxication ? What is one of the 
most pressing causes of death from alcohol? 

4. What has varied experiment proved in respect to the 

reduction of the temperature by alcohol ? 

(c) — 1. What is said of the testimony of arctic explorers in re- 

gard to alcohol and cold ? 

2. What is said by Dr. Bae in regard to deaths from exposure 

to cold ? What is said of the use of alcohol by people 
in the north-western part of America and in Canada ? 

3. State the results of tests made with a thermometer in 

ascertaining the temperature of the body. 

Lesson X. 

(a) — 1. What is the first effect of alcohol in ordinary intoxication ? 
2. What gradually takes place ? How is the brain affected ? 
The face, blood-vessels, and eyes ? 



Alcohol and the Human System. 223 

(b) — 1. When does re-action begin ? How is the memory affected ? 

The thoughts ? The temper ? What may a person in 
this condition do ? 

(c) — 1. What is the third stage of intoxication ? What occurs in 

this stage ? What muscles fail first ? What happens 
finally in this stage ? 

(d) — 1. What is the fourth stage ? What elements of alcohol now 

do their w^ork ? Into what condition does the person 
now sink ? 
2. How long does insensibility last ? What is the person's 
condition when he awakens from the stupor ? How 
long may this disordered condition last ? What is said 
of Nature and her laws ? 



Lesson XI. 

(a) — 1. What is delirium-tremens ? How is the victim of this 

disease affected ? 

(b) — 1. How is this disease caused? When, at times, does it set 

in? In most instances? What do the nerves and 
brain then miss ? 

(c) — 1. What are the first signs of the disease ? By what ordinary 

things may he be startled ? What of his tongue and 
hands ? How is his sleep affected ? 

2. Describe the victim's condition after delirium begins. 

3. What is most frequently the nature of the delirium? 

What is sometimes its nature ? 

4. Is the victim dangerous ? What may he do ? 

5. How long does the delirium continue ? 

(d) — 1. Under what circumstances is delirium-tremens not fatal 

usually ? Who frequently die from delirium ? 



Lesson XII. 

(a) *— 1. Describe the nervous temperament. 

2. How does alcohol affect the excitability? How ungov- 
ernable may a nervous person become nnder the 
influence of alcohol? What of the commission of 
crime ? 



224 Lessons on the Human Body. 

3. To what are nervous people very liable after being 
strongly excited ? How does alcohol affect this de- 
pression of mind ? What do nervous people often 
do while in this depressed state ? 

(b) — 1. Describe the sanguine temperament. 

2. Why cannot stimulants be taken without injury ? Ex- 

plain how the circulation is affected in this tempera- 
ment by alcohol. 

3. Is stimulation necessarj 7 in this temperament ? 

(c) — 1. Describe the lymphatic temperament. What of the cir- 

culation of the blood in people of this temperament ? 
2. What might be supposed to be beneficial ? Under what 
circumstances would stimulation benefit this tempera- 
ment ? What must be borne in mind in regard to the 
nature of alcohol ? How does alcohol affect the lym- 
phatic temperament? By whom, then, should stimu- 
lants be avoided? What is said of the stimulating 
nature of certain kinds of food ? 



Lesson XIII. 

(a) — 1. How does alcohol affect the moral feelings ? What care- 

lessness is induced by it ? To what does this lead ? 

(b) — 1. How does alcohol affect the character for truth ? 

(c) — 1. How does alcohol affect honesty in regard to the property 

of others? What temptations to dishonesty does it 
create ? 

(d) — 1. What is said of alcohol and crime ? 

(e) — 1. What do authorities say of an inherited appetite for 

alcohol? What is said of a skipping by the diseased 
appetite ? 

Lesson XIV. 

1. What is alcohol ? 

2. What of alcohol, and appetite for food ? 

3. Of alcohol and digestion ? 

4. Of alcohol and the stomach ? 

5. Of alcohol and the circulation ? 

6. Of the work of the heart ? 



Alcohol and the Human System. 225 

7. Of the muscular fibres of the heart ? 

8. Of the small arteries ? 

9. Of the plasma of the blood ? 

10. Of the corpuscles of the blood ? 

11. Of the burniug of waste-matter? 

12. Of the blood-vessels of the braiu? 

13. Of the substance of the braiu? 

14. Of alcohol collecting in the brain ? 

15. Of the cells of the brain ? 

16. Of the absorption of water from the nerves ? 

17. Of the muscular movement ? 

18. Of the heat of the body ? 

19. Of alcohol and the temperaments ? 

20. Of intoxication ? 

21. Of delirium-tremens ? 

22. Of the moral character ? 

23. Of inherited appetite ? 



PART IX. 



TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS. 



TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS. 



Lesson I. 

HISTORY OF TOBACCO. 



(a) Tf^hen First Knotvn by Europeans* — 1. Until 
the discovery of America, this plant was unknown 
to Europeans. The sailors who accompanied Colum- 
bus noticed the natives puffing smoke from their 
mouths and nostrils, and soon learned that this arose 
from the smoking of the dried leaves of a plant. 

2. A friar, Roman Pane, who accompanied Colum- 
bus on his second voyage, noticed that the natives 
used the dried and pulverized leaves as a purgative 
medicine, by snuffing it through tubes of cane. The 
Aztecs of Mexico smoked it in highly ornamented 
pipes of silver ; and other natives formed the leaves 
into rolls, and smoked them as the more modern cigar 
is now smoked. It appears that the ancient Ameri- 
can races used tobacco in all the modes in which it 
is now used by man. 

(b) Tobacco Introduced into Europe. — 1. In 
course of time a quantity of tobacco was brought to 
Portugal, and in 1560 Jean Mcot, the French ambas- 
sador, brought some of it with him to France. In 

229 



230 Lessons on the Human Body. 

1586 Sir Walter Raleigh, who had become acquainted 
with its use, introduced it into England. 

2. In the short period of thirty years after its 
introduction into England, its use had become so 
common, and such enormous sums were expended in 
obtaining it, that his Majesty, King James, in the 
quaint style which was natural to him, said, " It is a 
custome loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, 
harmful to the braine, dangerous to the lungs, and 
in the black, stinking fume thereof neerest resem- 
bling the horrible Stigian smoake of the pit that is 
bottomlesse." 

(c) Origin of the Name " Tobacco," — 1. Various 
accounts are given of the origin of the name of 
tobacco ; but the one most probable is, that it was 
so called from the Indian tabacos, a. name applied by 
the Caribs to the pipe in which they smoked the 
leaves of the plant, and thence came to be applied 
to the plant itself. 



Lesson EL 

NATURE AND EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 

(a) Nature of Tobacco. — 1. Botanists describe 
forty different species of the tobacco-plant, all of 
which are more or less remarkable for their poisonous, 
narcotic properties. 

2. The poisonous nature of tobacco is mainly due 
to one of its elements called nicotine (after Jean 



Tobacco and its Effects. 231 

Nicot), a substance similar to morphia. Nicotine is 
a liquid of a dark-brown color and of a biting taste. 
When vaporized by heat in a close room, it gives out 
an odor so oppressive, that breathing becomes diffi- 
cult, even if but a drop of it has been spilled. 

3. Nicotine is a deadly poison. Experiments show 
that five drops of it placed on the tongue of a dog 
have been sufficient to produce death, while twelve 
drops caused death in as many minutes. Two drops 
placed on the tongue of a fowl caused death almost 
instantly. Children who have inhaled the odor of 
nicotine from old tobacco-pipes, or who have swal- 
lowed minute particles of it, have been thrown into 
convulsions, and death has sometimes resulted. 

(I)) Tobacco as a Medicine* — 1. Tobacco pro- 
duces remarkable effects on the system, whether it 
be taken into the stomach, or applied to portions 
of the body from which the skin has been removed. 
In the latter instance it is absorbed into the blood, 
and its use is attended with great danger, some- 
times with death.. 

2. When taken into the stomach, it produces great 
nausea, and this effect has suggested its use as an 
emetic ; but, as the danger of such use is very great, 
it is seldom attempted. It also acts as a purgative. 

(c) General Effects of the Ordinary Use of To- 
bacco. — 1. When introduced into the system in 
small quantities, by smoking, chewing, or snuffing, it 
acts as a narcotic, and produces, for the time, a calm 
feeling of mind and body, a state of mild stupor and 



232 Lessons on the Human Body. 

repose. This condition changes to one of nervous 
restlessness and a general feeling of muscular weak- 
ness when its habitual use is temporarily interrupted. 
In this condition, the body and mind feel in need of 
stimulation, and there is danger that a resort to alco- 
hol may be had. The use of alcohol is frequently 
induced by that of tobacco. 

2. When excessviely used, or used by one unac- 
customed to it, it causes dizziness, nausea, faintness, 
vomiting, and extreme weakness ; that is, it poisons ; 
and convulsions and death may ensue. 

3. Ordinarily the poison of nicotine is introduced 
into the system by swallowing small quantities of 
tobacco-juice, by its absorption through the lining 
of the mouth, or by inhaling the fumes of tobacco 
when it is smoked. 

4. Tobacco, like alcohol, and for nearly the same 
reasons, injures the brain, deranges the entire nervous 
system, spoils the appetite for wholesome food, lowers 
the life-forces, injures the lungs and heart, and de- 
presses the spirits. When indulged in by young 
persons, it saps the foundations of health, and dwarfs 
the body and mind. 

Conclusion. 

Every one is responsible for the care of his body 
and of his mind ; and he who intelligently cares for 
" the house in which we live," will add to his powers 
and pleasures, and induce length of life. 



QUESTIONS 



FOR 



EXAMINATION AND REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS. 



PART IX. 
TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS 



Lesson I. 

(a) — 1. When was tobacco first known by Europeans? What 

did Columbus' sailors notice ? 
2. What use of tobacco was noticed by Roman Pane ? How 
did the Aztecs use it ? How was it used by some of the 
natives ? In general, how was it used by the American 
races ? 

(b) — 1. When and by whom was tobacco introduced into France ? 

Into England ? How soon did its use become common ? 

(c) — 1. State what is said of the origin of the name " tobacco." 

Lesson II. 

(a) — 1. How many species of tobacco are described by botanists ? 

For what are all the species remarkable ? 

2. To what is the poisonous nature of tobacco mainly due ? 

Describe nicotine. What is said of it when vaporized ? 

3. What is the nature of nicotine ? State how deadly it is 

when applied to the tongues of animals. How have 
children been affected by the odor of nicotine ? 

(b) — 1. What are the effects of tobacco when used as a medicine ? 

When applied to the surface of the body ? 
2. When taken into the stomach ? What use of it has been 
suggested by its effect on the stomach ? 

235 



236 Lessons on the Human Body. 

(c) — 1. What are its effects when introduced into the system in 
small quantities by smoking, etc. ? How does this 
condition change ? What danger is there ? 

2. What effect has the excessive use of tobacco ? 

3. How is the poison of nicotine ordinarily introduced into 

the system ? 

4. State the general bad effects of the use of tobacco. What 

are its bad effects upon young persons ? 



Conclusion. 

What is said of our responsibility for the care of body and 
mind? 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX. 



WHAT TO DO TILL THE DOCTOR ARRIVES. 

1. Poisoning in General. — In all cases of sus- 
pected poisoning, in which the kind of poison is not 
known, the best thing to do is to cause vomiting. 
Mix a dessert-spoonful of mustard, or a like quantity 
of salt, with a tumblerful of tepid water, and give 
it immediately. Cause the vomiting to continue till 
the stomach has discharged all its contents, after 
which, milk may be given freely. If the patient is 
cold, warmth may be produced by hot tea or coffee. 

2. Poisoning by Carbonic Acid. — A winter sel- 
dom passes without a number of deaths from the use 
of coal or charcoal in close or unventilated apart- 
ments. The first thing to do is to remove the patient 
from the poisonous atmosphere, and to open doors 
and windows. Lay the person down, with his head 
resting on his left arm. Open the mouth, draw the 
tongue forward, and then roll the person gently 
over toward the left, until the face is nearly down- 
wards; then roll the body back again. The object 

239 



240 Lessons on the Human Body. 

of this is to restore the breath by compressing the 
lungs, and then allowing them to expand again, and 
thus draw in the air. The body should be rolled as 
described about fifteen times a minute, and the pro- 
cess kept up for a long time ; for persons have been 
restored even after an hour's effort. If the skin is 
warm, cold water may be poured on the head and 
spine ; while, if the body be cold, a warm bath, or 
other means of warming, should be applied. 

3. Restoration from Drowning. — Lay the person 
fla;t upon his back, and proceed precisely as directed 
in restoring the breath in cases of suffocation by car- 
bonic acid. The operation of rolling the body should 
be kept up for a long time. Warmth should be ap- 
plied to the body in any way that is most convenient. 

4. Bleeding from an Artery. — Tie a handker- 
chief about the limb, between the cut and the body. 
Let the knot press upon the artery, and insert a stick 
in the folds of the bandage, and twist so tightly that 
the blood cannot flow from the compressed blood- 
vessels. 

5. A knowledge of these few simple processes 
may save a life that would otherwise be lost ere the 
doctor arrives. 



QUESTIONS. 



APPENDIX. 



1. What remedy should be given in all cases of suspected 
poisoning ? How long should vomiting be kept up ? 
What may then be given? What if the patient be 
cold? 

2* What frequently results from the use of coal and charcoal ? 
What is the first thing to be done ? How should the 
suffocated person be placed ? How should he be rolled ? 
How often, and how long? What is the object of roll- 
ing the body ? What may be done if the body is cold ? 
If warm ? 

3. Describe the process of restoring animation in cases of 

apparent drowning. 

4. How may bleeding from an artery be checked? Where 

should the bandage be placed ? Why ? 

5. Of what use may a knowledge of these simple processes 

be? 



Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms used. 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. 



a, £, I, o, S, y, long, as in ale, eve, 

ice, old, use, fly. 
&, e, I, 5, ii, $, short, as in fitt, m5t, 

5ft, Odd, tls, cyst. 
a, a, a, as in ask, arm, all. 
e, c, as in «at, pell. 
£, e, as in Srmine, eight. 



£, g, as in gem, get. 

U, as in link. 

6, 6, as in s6n, order. 

g, as in hag. 

-eh = k, as in chorus. 

pli = f , as in phantom. 



Ab-do'men (Lat.), from abdere, to hide ; and omentum, entrails. 

Al bii'men (Lat.), from albus, white. 

iLl'-ehe-my- (-ke-me), from Arabic al-kama, the substance or composition of 

things. 
JLl'eo-liSl (Arabic), from al-Tcohl, a powder of antimony. 
Al'i-ment/a-r^ (Lat.), from alere, to feed. 
JL-iiat'o-my (Gr.), from ana, up; and temo, to cut. 
JL-dr'ta (Lat.), aorta, to lift, heave ; Gr. aorte, to keep in air. 
Ap-pa-ra/tiis (Lat.), from apparare, to prepare. 
A'que-oiU (a-kwe-tis) (Lat.), aqua, water. 
jLv'ter-f (Gr.), arteria, to keep in air. The ancients believed that the arteries 

contained air. 
JLr-tie f iI-late (Lat.), artas, a joint. 

As-phjfx'i-a (-fix'e-a) (Gr.), asphuxis, depriving of pulse. 
^.u'di-to-rj?- (Lat.), audio, to hear. 
4-Wri-ele (Lat.), auris, an ear. 
Bi-etis'pids (Lat.), bis, two; and cuspids, points. 
Bile (Lat.), bilis, anger. 

Bi'ceps (Lat.), bis, two: and (Gr.), cephalus, a head. 
Br&ii'-ehi (Gr.), bronchos, the windpipe. 

243 



244 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Cap'il-la-ries (-res) (Lat.), capillus, a hair. 

Car-bdn'i« (Lat.), carbo, a coal. 

•Car'pils (Gr.), karpos, the wrist. 

Car'tl-la^e (Lat.), cartilago, gristle. 

$er'e-bel'lum (Lat.) (diminutive of cerebrum, brain), the little brain. 

£er'e-briim (Lat.), the brain. 

•€ho f roid (Gr.), chorion, skin, leather; and eidos, resemblance. 

Cliyle (kll) (Gr.), chulos, nutritious juice. 

Chyme (kim) (Gr.), chymos, grayish juice. 

•€lav'I-ele (klaVi-kl) (Lat.), clavicula, a little key. 

-€5n-ges'tion (Lat.), congestio, gathering into a mass. 

•€6r'ne-a (Lat.), comit*, a horn. 

•Cdr'piis-cle (koVptis-1) (Lat.), corpus, a body; corpusculum, a little body. 

■Cry-s'tal-line (Lat.), crystallinus, congealed like ice. 

■€ii f ti-ele (kii'ti-kl) (Lat.), cuticula, from cutis, the skin. 

I>i-£eVtion (Lat.), digestio, separation, dissolving. 

IH'a-phragm (-fram) (Lat.), dia, through; and phragma, partition. 

l>is'lo~eate (Lat.), dis, from; and locus, place. 

I>Is-sect' (Lat.), dis, away; and secare, to cut. 

Dis-tlll' (Lat.) de, from; and stillare, to drop. 

D^s-pep'si-a. (Lat.), dys, bad; and pepsis, digestion. 

I>lict (Lat.), from ducere, to lead. 

I>ii-o-d5'irum (Lat.), duodeni, twelve each. 

Du'ra mater (Lat.), durus, hard; and mater, mother. 

D$-Hr'i-iim tre'mens (Lat.), from delirare, to go out of the furrow, to wan- 
der in mind; and tremere, to tremble. 

J6p'i-gl5t/tis (Gr.), epi, upon ; and glotta, the tongue. 

Eu.-sta/«hi-aii (yu-sta'ki-an), from Eustachi, the name of a learned Italian 
physician, who discovered the tube. 

FiVii-la (Lat.), a clasp. 

Fl'bre (-bu>) (Tuat.),fibra, a thread. 

F£r-meiit-a/tion (L,2iX.),fermentum, to boil. 

Fe'miir (Lat.), femoris, the thigh. 

Fiimes (hat.), fumus, vapor, smoke. 

Func'tioii (Lat.), fungor, I act. 

Gas'tri-e (Gr.), gaster, the stomach. 

Glands (dz) (Lat.), glandis, an acorn, a nut. 



Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms. 245 

Gldt'tls (Gr.), glotta, the tongue. 

Hu'mSr (Lat.), from humere, to be moist. 

Hu'me-rtis (Lat.), the shoulder. 

Hy'dro-£en (Gr)., hydro, water : and geinomai, I produce... 

Hy'lji-Sne' (Gr.), from Hygeia, the goddess of health. 

Im-pftv'er-Ish (Old French), povere, poor. 

In sal i-vu/tion (Lat.), from in, with ; and saliva, spittle. 

In-tes'tlne (-tm) (Lat.), from intus, on the inside. 

In-t5x'i-«ate (Lat.), from toxicum, poison. 

In-vttl'uii taTry (Lat.), from in, not; and volitum, will. 

In-iittm-i-iia'ta (Lat.), from in, not; and nomen, Dame. 

I'ris (Lat.), the rainbow. 

Ijab'y-riiitli (lab'a-rlnth) (Lat.), labyrinthus, full of windings. 

T^a€ f te-al (Lat.), from lactis, milk. 

Tiiicli'ry-mal (l&k'ri-mal) (Lat.), lacliryma, a tear. 

Iiym-pliat'i« (lim fat'ik) (Lat.), lymplia, a colorless fluid. 

I^ar'ynx (-inx) (Gr.), from larngx, a whistle. 

rjIg'a-ment(Lat.), from ligare, to bind. 

BIas-tI-ca'tioii(Lat.), from mastico, I mash, I chew. 

Me-dtll'la (Lat.), medulla, marrow. 

Membrane (Lat.), from membrana, a delicate skin. 

Mo'tor (Lat.), from motum, to move. 

Mii'coiis (kits) (Lat.), mucous, slime. 

Met/a-tar'siis (Gr.), meta, beyond; and tarsus, ankle. 

Met'a car'ptts (Gr.), meta, beyond ; and Jcarpos, wrist. 

MT'cro-scope (Gr.), from mikros, small; and sJcopeo, I see. 

Mris'$le (muVsl) (Lat.), mus, a mouse; musculus, a little mouse. 

JYar-eot f i« (Gr.), from narlce, numbness, stupor. 

IVa'gal (Lat.), from nasus, the nose. 

Notir'isli-iiig (Lat.), from nutritum, feeding, supporting. 

OS sBpli'a-gtts (e-sof'a giis) (Gr.), from oio, to carry; and phagein, to eat 

ftr'gan (Lat.), from organum, an instrument. 

Ox/y-£en (Gr.), from oxys, sharp, acid; and geinomai, I produce. 

Pal'ate (Lat.), from palatum, the roof of the mouth. 

Pancreas (Gr.), from pan, all; and hreas, flesh. 

Par'a-lyze (Gr.), from para, beside; and lysis, to loosen. 

Pa-tel'la (Lat.), a little dish. (From patina, a dish.) 



246 Lessons on the Human Body. 

Pel 'vis (Lat.), a basin. 

Pep'sin (Gr.). from pepsis, a digesting. 

Per'i-earMi-um (Gr.), from^eri, about; and kardia, the heart 

Plia-lan'ges (Gr.), from phalagx, a rank. 

Pilar 'yiix (-inx) (Gr.), frompharugx, the gullet. 

Ph.ys/i-51'o-*y (Gr.), from phusis, nature; and logos, a description. 

Pi' a ma'ter (Lat.), from pia, tender; and mater, mother. 

Plas/ma (Lat.), plasma, anything formed. 

Pleii'ra (Gr.), pleura, a rib, the side. 

Piil'mo-iia ry (Lat.), from pulmo, a lung. 

Pftr'ga-tive (Lat.), from purgare, to make clean. 

Py lo'riis (Gr.), a gate, a door. 

Ra/di lis (Lat.), a staff, a ray. 

Ret'i-iia (Lat.), from rete, a net; or retineo, I hold. 

Sa'erum (Lat.), from sacer, sacred. 

Sa-li'va, (Lat.), siliva, spittle. 

Scap'u la (Lat.), the shoulder-blade. 

Sele-rSt/ie (skle-rot'ik) (Lat.), sclerotitis, hard. 

Se-ba/ceoiis (shQs) (Lat,), from sebum, tallow. 

Sen'so-ry (Lat.), from sensum, to perceive by the senses. 

Sltel'e-ton (Gr.), from skello, I make dry. 

SpiJie (Lat.), spina, a thorn. 

Spore (Lat.), sporos, a seed. 

StSr'ivum (Lat.), from sterno, to spread out, to flatten. 

Stim'ii lant (Lat.), from stimulare, to spur on. 

St6m'aeli (stilm'ak) (Lat. stumachus, an opening. 

Stii'pe-fy (Lat.), from stupere, to be struck senseless. 

Siit/ lire (-yur) (Lat.), sutura, from suere, to sew. 

Syn-o'vi-al (sm-o'vT-al) (Gr.), syn, with; and (Lat.), ovum, an egg. 

TeiiMdn (Lat.), from tendo, I stretchout. 

Tlio rac'ie (tho-ras'ik) (Lat.), from thorax, the chest. 

Tlio'rax (Lat.), the chest. 

Tib'i-a (Lat.), the shin-bone. 

Tra'elie a tra'ke-a) (Lat.), from trachia, rough. 

TrI-eiis'pid (Lat.), from tri, three; and cuspis, a point 

Tym'pa usim (Lat.), a kettle drum. 

fl'na (Lat.). the elbow. 






Pronunciation and Derivation of Terms. 247 



Valve (Lat.), from valva, a folding-door. 

Vein (Lat.), from vena, a blood-vessel. 

Ven'tri-ele (Lat.)> ventriculus, from venter, the belly. 

Ver'te -bra (Lat.), from vertere, to turn, 

Vi'brate (Lat.), from vibratum, to set in motion to and fro. 

Vit/re-ofis (Lat.), vitreus, from vitrum, glass. 



